
nam L 73 j 1 1 # 



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COMRIGHT DEPOSFT. 



OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

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LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
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CKui sTvdu association o£ A>nev 

OUTLINES OF CHILD 
STUDY 

A Manual for Parents 
and Teachers 



EDITED BY 

BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG 

FOR 

THE FEDERATION FOR CHILD STUDY 

WITH AN INTRODUCTION 
BY 

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE 



4i2eto fotfe 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1922 

All rights reserved 



PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



LB MI5T 



Copyright, 1922 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Sot up and electrotyped. Published November, 1922. 






©CLA683969 



PRESS OF 

WYNKOOP HALLENBECK CRAWFORD CO. 

NEW YORK 



TO 

BIRD STEIN GANS 

WHOSE INSPIRATION AND UNTIRING DEVOTION 

MADE POSSIBLE THE EXISTENCE AND 

CONTINUED GROWTH OF 

THE FEDERATION FOR CHILD STUDY 

THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED 
BY HER FELLOW WORKERS 



INTRODUCTION 

It is a privilege to introduce to those unacquainted 
with it one aspect of the work of the Federation for 
Child Study. Of all the organizations which have 
sought to stimulate parents to study and know their 
children, the Federation has had probably the most 
experience. For over a score of years its leaders have 
been guiding the reading and discussion of groups of 
parents and teachers, but especially of parents. Upon 
their experience are based these Outlines of Child 
Study. The arrangement is topical; and each topic is 
presented by (1) a statement of the general state of 
knowledge of the topic, (2) an outline which lists the 
detailed facts and problems concerning which there is 
information available, and (3) a list of helpfully graded 
references, ranging from attractive popular articles to 
technical monographs. 

The treatment is comprehensive, both in the topics 
chosen and in the outline and references for each. 
Especially valuable are the sections on concrete aspects 
of human behavior, such as Toys, Manners, The Use 
of Money, Pets and Plants, and Hobbies, which the 
ordinary manuals of Child Study have relatively 
neglected. The treatment is modern; mental tests, 
psycho-analysis and the conditioned reflex receiving 
due (some conservative critics may think, undue) 
attention, and recent work in all lines being considered. 

vii 



viii INTRODUCTION 

Suitable connections with the general sciences of 
human nature are made so that the student who follows 
the Outlines for any dozen or so of topics is almost 
certain to be made acquainted with representative 
scientific work in biology, psychology and sociology. 

Many earnest parents and teachers will use this book 
and thank The Federation for Child Study and Dr. 
Gruenberg for it. 

Edward L. Thorndike. 



PREFACE 

Every thoughtful person who has to deal with 
children comes sooner or later to realize that most of 
his acts, as well as most of the children's acts, arise, at 
least in part, from blind impulse. Some of these acts 
we recognize to be, if not harmful or foolish, at least 
futile or irrelevant. But, since we believe that what- 
ever we do for the child or to the child should have a 
purpose in relation to his education, his development, 
his adjustment, we are driven by considerations of self- 
esteem to justify our conduct — to rationalize it, as the 
psychiatrists say — by attributing to it some approved 
purpose. We say, for example, that punishment, often 
but a manifestation of bad temper, is designed to teach 
the child a lesson; we say that our dismissal of the 
importunate questioner is for the purpose of teaching 
him to be considerate of busy people, and so on. The 
Federation for Child Study takes the position that we 
must make deliberate and systematic effort to replace 
impulse with purpose in all our dealings with children. 
We ought to know what we are driving at, we ought to 
know how our ends are to be achieved; we should not 
be content merely to carry on, merely to drive, for that 
is futile, and often pernicious. 

Every attempt to substitute rational treatment of 
children for rationalized impulse raises the question of 
what is sound practise. And in no field are there 
more controversial issues. Here everybody feels free 

ix 



x OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

to have opinions and nobody hesitates to give expres- 
sion to his own. And with so many opinions to draw 
upon, so many that are supported by reputable names, 
it is very easy to continue upon our impulsive careers 
unchecked, for we have simply to claim that we are 
following this or that set of "methods" to make our 
conduct appear calculated and purposeful, not to say 
"scientific." The Federation has undertaken to separ- 
ate usable knowledge from mere opinion. This does 
not mean that opinions can be wholly disregarded, for 
they cannot. Vast as is the accumulation of facts 
concerning the nature of the child, there are many 
questions about him that cannot to-day be definitely 
answered. The point is, first, to make use of such 
knowledge as is available, and second, to recognize 
where knowledge is lacking and where, therefore, we are 
using the best judgments to be had. 

Finally, we recognize that between the child and 
his mentors there is always and everywhere — and 
necessarily — more or less friction. How much of this 
is inherent in the nature of man and of his young, and 
how much of it is potentially within the control of 
intelligence, we do not know; but we are led to hope that 
it is not entirely unavoidable by observing the experience 
of those who do actually manage to live with growing 
children under conditions of peace and friendship. 
The Federation for Child Study has assumed that 
responsibility for reducing this friction to a minimum 
rests with the elders, and that an essential element in 
dealing with the difficulties is a sympathetic under- 
standing by them of the younger folks. 

The aims of the Federation may thus be sum- 



OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY xi 

marized as being the substitution of purpose for 
impulse or inertia, of knowledge for uncritical opinion, 
and of sympathy for friction and antagonism. To 
further these aims the members of the groups have 
devoted themselves to a study of the characteristics of 
children in their various stages of development, of the 
forces and experiences that modify their conduct and 
attitudes, of the conditions favorable to their whole- 
some development. This study has been far from aca- 
demic. Every individual has been concerned with real 
problems of real children. The subject-matter of this 
study has been children's behavior — or misbehavior — 
and elders' perplexities. Moreover, since knowing 
what 'twere well to do is by no means a guarantee of 
its being done, the members of these study groups have 
had much more to acquire than the conclusions of their 
discussions or the doctrines of some authority. The 
value of the methods developed may be inferred from 
the many practical results which the members feel they 
have attained in their own families or schools; but the 
outstanding value of the discussions is well illustrated 
by the extent to which those who have taken part in 
them have overcome their long-standing inhibitions to 
the rational, objective consideration of certain intimate 
problems related to the sex life of the child. 

The Federation for Child Study was founded over 
thirty years ago by a small group of mothers, at the 
suggestion of Dr. Felix Adler, as "The Society for the 
Study of Child Nature." Since its establishment it has 
evolved an effective method of child study for parents, 
teachers, institutional and social workers — that is, 
for those who are vitally and practically concerned 



jdi OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

with children, rather than for students with a purely 
academic interest in the subject. This book is an 
attempt to make available to others both the benefits 
of this method and some of the concrete results of the 
Federation's efforts. The Outlines have all been 
worked out on the basis of actual problems, both con- 
crete and theoretical, which the members of the study- 
groups have brought out in the course of their study 
and discussion. They are snapshots, so to say, of 
constantly changing plans ; they are therefore not to be 
considered as in any sense final. They do represent, 
however, as experience has shown, very helpful guides 
to individual and group study, and are offered as 
practical working plans for those who can benefit from 
a better understanding of the various phases and pro- 
cesses of childhood. It is the intention of the Federa- 
tion to issue from time to time supplementary material 
designed to keep workers who follow this plan up to 
date. 

The references represent the best available literature 
at the present time. New knowledge is constantly 
being produced by observers, investigators and experi- 
menters, and every alert person will want to keep 
informed regarding significant discoveries. Yet most 
of the readings suggested will be found to be of rela- 
tively enduring value. There is variety to allow for 
divergent viewpoints on controversial topics, and for 
different degrees of technical training on the part of the 
students. 

In assembling this material, the active members of 
the Federation have done the bulk of the work. This 
has consisted of digesting and abstracting the reports 



OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY xiii 

and minutes of hundreds of discussion and study- 
meetings, of eliminating duplications and irrelevancies, 
of selecting the most helpful topics and modes of 
approach, and of indicating the most helpful readings. 
It is only one who has had the opportunity to look 
over the voluminous records of the Federation's 
activities for nearly a third of a century that can 
realize both the radical change in viewpoint undergone 
by these students, in common with professional in- 
vestigators and educators, and the great amount of 
selection necessary to make the most usable part of 
these records available in the present form. 

It would be impossible to enumerate those who 
have assisted in this work, for they number literally 
hundreds; but all who have taken part will feel amply 
rewarded if this work proves to be of practical help to 
their fellows. 

October, 1922. 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction by Edward L. Thorndike vii 

Preface ix 

Suggestions for Study xvii 

A Survey of the Child's Development 3 

The Child as an Organism 8 

Health Factors 13 

Physical Disturbances 16 

Infancy and Its Discipline 19 

Obedience 23 

Punishment 26 

Imagination 30 

Truth and Falsehood 34 

Curiosity 38 

Fear 42 

Imitation and Suggestion 47 

Instinct and Habit 52 

Freedom and Discipline 57 

Constructing and Destroying 61 

Toys and Tools 65 

Language and Speech Development 71 

Foreign Languages 75 

Manners 78 

The Use of Money 82 

Acquisitiveness 85 

Initiative and Spontaneity 92 

Ambitions and Ideals 97 

Rivalry and Competition 104 

Clubs and Gangs 106 

Fighting Ill 

xv 



xvi CONTENTS 

Page 

Play 116 

Travel and Adventure 121 

Pets and Plants 125 

The Outdoor Life 128 

Hobbies 132 

Children's Books and Reading 135 

Arts in the Life of the Child 141 

Music 146 

Heredity 151 

Sex Education 157 

Adolescence — Physical 163 

Adolescence — Emotional 167 

Adolescence — Intellectual 174 

Coeducation 180 

Choosing an Occupation 185 

Training in Social Responsibility 190 

Religious Training 196 

Civic Interests 199 

The Exceptional Child— Deficient 203 

The Exceptional Child— Delinquent 209 

The Exceptional Child — Superior 213 

Mental Hygiene 218 

Mental Tests 222 

The Festival in the Child's Education 226 

Cooperation Between School and Home 231 



SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AND READING 

The sections that make up this book give a general 
survey of the more common problems that arise from 
our having to live with children. The mere reading 
of the text, however, will hardly serve as a substitute 
for the continuous watchful and thoughtful study of 
children, and of other people's thoughts and observa- 
tions upon children. There is offered here merely a 
guide for study and reading. 

The table of contents will give a sufficient indication 
of the kind and the range of topics discussed. The 
individual reader or the study group or class will select 
a topic or a series of topics in accordance with actual 
needs or interests. If there is a baby in the house you 
will ignore for the time being the discussion of the use 
of money, but will give your attention to the problems 
of infancy. If your chief concerns are with the play- 
mates and mannerisms of a particular child, you will 
look in another part of the book for help. It is desir- 
able, however, that the study be systematic and 
progressive rather than random and spasmodic, 
although it is not necessary to take the topics in the 
order given. 

After a topic or series of related topics has been 
selected for study, it will be found profitable to read 
first the text. This is intended to give a suggestion 
as to the nature of the problem, as to its relation to 

xvii 



xviii SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AND READING 

various practical matters (sometimes also its theoretical 
bearings), and as to the directions in which solutions 
have been tried or worked out. 

The "outline" proper should then be read carefully. 
The student should first read the main headings 
(numbered 1, 2, 3, etc.), pausing long enough to make 
sure of the general significance of the divisions. Then 
the subdivisions should be studied with some effort to 
recall concrete experiences related to the characteristic 
behavior, qualities, feelings, or whatever is indicated. 

For this reading of the outline, some help may be 
had by again referring to the text. 

Where the topic has been divided for study and 
report by members of a group, reading assignments as 
well as sub-topic assignments may be made in accord- 
ance with individual interests and special facilities. 
In general, the more " popular" readings and the 
"non-technical" readings will be found to touch on all 
the phases of the topics, whereas the "technical" 
papers usually confine themselves to some special 
phase, which is often apparent from the title. 

It is not to be expected that any student will read 
most of the papers or chapters referred to; but it is 
desirable that where a group is studying a topic, some 
one or more members be assigned to read and report 
each reference that is accessible. 

Make haste slowly. Only those who have had 
considerable training or experience can profitably start 
off with the technical literature. For beginners, the 
best plan is to read first one or two of the "popular" 
references; then, as the subject and vocabulary become 
more familiar, to advance to the "non- technical"; 



SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AND READING xix 

and eventually to attempt the " technical" readings, 
if at all, only after fairly complete acquaintance with 
various aspects of the special problem and with the 
terminology. It will be found that in very many cases 
the only difference between a "popular" and a " non- 
technical" paper on a given topic is that the former is 
written in a more familiar or readable style and avoids 
unusual words. In the same way a " technical" paper 
is often no more difficult of comprehension than a 
"non-technical," differing only from the latter in a 
severer style, but having no more depth of thought 
and revealing no greater insight. 

Another important matter in the selecting of 
references is the fact that different styles of writing 
make different appeals to different individuals. It is, 
therefore, worth while becoming acquainted with 
several authors, discovering for ourselves which are 
most helpful. This does not necessarily mean that 
all the authors tell us substantially the same story and 
differ from each other merely in style. We shall find 
that some authors are more helpful, and that some are 
more easily read. The point is that we are to make no 
virtue of reading what is particularly difficult, when we 
can get the same practical results with less effort. 

In reading a given chapter or paper, it is well to 
have the outline before us, either in the book or copied 
with generous spacing on blank paper or in a notebook. 
If notes are made, they can then be entered in an order 
corresponding to the plan followed by other members 
of the class. This is especially helpful where a group 
is engaged in a study or where the reader refers to two 



xx SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AND READING 

or more authors, since it makes possible the comparison 
of notes gathered from various sources. 

A slow, critical reading that attempts to check 
generalizations and new ideas against previous ex- 
perience and that seeks to visualize the concrete situa- 
tions described or the practical results implied, is of 
the utmost value. One such thorough reading with the 
problems and plans clearly in mind is worth more than 
several repetitions that are directed merely to " learn- 
ing" what the book says. 

Hand in hand with the analysis of the problems and 
the study of the references should go the noting of the 
related traits to be observed in the children. Observa- 
tion may well be recorded briefly in connection with 
the notes, together with any questions that suggest 
themselves. 

In reporting upon a topic, we must be careful to 
separate clearly our abstract of the author's facts or 
thoughts from our own observations, criticisms, or 
views. 

A rereading of the text after the study of the outline 
and the references will serve as a summary of the topic, 
and the important points will be seen to have a new 
meaning. 

From time to time the reader will come across news- 
paper items, magazine articles, or passages in novels or 
in other books that are related to the study of child- 
hood. It is worth while in such cases to make a brief 
note and reference to the item in question on the 
appropriate page in the Manual. 



OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 



1. A SURVEY OF THE CHILD'S 
DEVELOPMENT 

In considering the successive stages of the develop- 
ing child, we must bear in mind that no two children 
are exactly alike, and that the rates of development 
and the degrees of development of the several charac- 
ters will vary. The stages listed are not sharply sep- 
arated from one another. The traits mentioned do not 
show themselves suddenly, but each in its turn grad- 
ually becomes distinguishable from the whole mass of 
actions and feelings. Our control lies in the fact that 
we can to a large extent determine the kinds of stim- 
ulations which the child receives. Our study should 
discover how the child responds to various kinds of 
treatment, to various conditions — to the "stimuli" in 
short — and to find and apply the stimuli which pro- 
duce the responses leading to desirable types of conduct. 

The survey of characteristics that become promi- 
nent in the successive stages must be considered only 
as a tentative approximation. It is neither a record 
of what any particular child has done, nor a calendar 
of what any particular child " ought" to do. It is 
helpful as an " average," in proportion to the insight 
we exercise in discovering the meaning of the conduct 
of the particular child in whom we are interested, and 
in proportion to the judgment we use in fitting the 
surroundings, including ourselves, to the child's present 
needs. 

3 



4 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

This survey shows that the child develops pro- 
gressively from a comparatively passive organism 
dependent upon external stimulations and suggestions 
to a relatively self-directing personality. So obedience 
to suggestion or guidance and even command is the 
condition for establishing habits that are related to 
fundamental physical and social needs. Gradually 
this dependence must be replaced by a body of prin- 
ciples and ideals as well as by habit of inquiry and 
reflection, so that eventually the child becomes both 
independent and responsible. 

At every stage may be observed the gradual differ- 
entiation of new capacities, new interests, and new 
attitudes from an earlier, relatively shapeless mass of 
activities and feelings. At the same time there is an 
increasing integration of the various manifestations of 
inner impulses in subordination to dominating purpose. 
These facts of development are illustrated by the 
child's games, by his attitude toward others, by his 
choice of companions, by his hobbies. The differentia- 
tions are most conspicuous during the period of child- 
hood, say from the sixth to the twelfth year; the 
integration becomes conspicuous during adolescence. 



OUTLINE 
1. INFANCY — FIRST 11 TO 15 MONTHS 

a. Need for individual care 

b. Movements, reflex and random 

c. Experience of environment, reaction, and self — un- 

differentiated 



A SURVEY OF THE CHILD'S DEVELOPMENT I 

2. WALKING-TALKING PERIOD, 2 TO 3 YEARS 

a. Imitation and discovery of individuals 

b. Stimuli from language, expression, gesture, etc. 

c. Separation of sensations from objects 

d. Separation of emotions from stimuli and action 

e. Appearance of play as a detached activity 

f. Imaginations 

3. PRE-SCHOOL AGE, 4 TO 6 YEARS 

a. Self-consciousness 

b. Self-assertiveness 

c. Curiosity 

d. Discovery of imagined and real 

e. Appropriation 

f . Control of larger movements 

g. Activity 

h. Play about objects, toys, symbols 

4. THE LATENT PERIOD, 6 TO 12 YEARS 

a. Rivalry 

b. Pugnacity 

c. Ambition 

d. Socialization and loyalties 

e. Control of smaller movements 

f. Constructiveness 

g. Collecting 

h. Rise and decline of imitativeness (related to compe- 
tition) 

i. Emergence of team games 

j. Adventure (prowess) 
k. Ready assimilation, drill 

5. THE ADOLESCENT AGE, 12 TO 16 YEARS 

a. Development of puberty 

b. Sex consciousness 

c. New interest 

d. New energies 

e. New ideals 

f . Self -discovery and self-determination 



6 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

6. MATURING PERIOD, 18 TO 24 TEARS 

a. Assimilation of thought and activities of the race 

b. Assumption of place in community, and of responsi- 

bility 

c. Participation in the shaping of social destiny 



REFERENCES 

Popular 
Drummond, M. — Five Years Old or Thereabouts 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 67-70 

Non-Technical 
Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 
Chap. Ill, "General Description"; 
Chap. IX, "General Characteristics" 

Norsworthy and Whitley — The Psychology of Childhood: 
Chap. XIV, "Physical Development of the Child"; 
Chap. XV, "A Cross Section of Child Life at Five 
and at Eleven" 

Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 

Chap. II, "Growth of the Body"; 

Chap. XIV, "Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive 

Movements"; 
Chap. XX, "Play" 

Technical 
King, Irving" — The Psychology of Child Development: 

Chap. XIV, Concluding Remarks on "Interests" 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Studies in Development and Learning: 
Archives of Psychology, II, 4-101, March, 1909: 
Development of auditory and visual memory, 4-8; 
Development in quickness of perception and move- 
ment, 9-14; Artistic sense, 15-24; Ways of learning 



A SURVEY OF THE CHILD'S DEVELOPMENT 7 

visual forms, 54-59; How children study, 65-66; 
Experimental study of musical learning, 68-71; 
Incidental memory, 79-85; Children's ideas of right 
and wrong, 79-89 

Rasmussen, Vilhelm — Child Psychology: 

Chap. I, "Development in the First Four Years" 



2. THE CHILD AS AN ORGANISM 

Most of us have become accustomed to think of the 
child, at least after he is able to talk, as a cunning 
intelligence bent upon mischief or upon the pursuit of 
inscrutable purposes often resulting in mischief. In 
fact, however, the child is for the most part quite 
unconscious of any purposes until he gets well along in 
years, and most of what he does might better be inter- 
preted as the inevitable result of forces acting upon 
him and through him than as the calculated result of 
his planning or desire. 

like an intelligent animal or machine, the child 
responds to the impressions he receives in a manner 
determined by his structure and constitution. He is 
not, to be sure, a purely automatic machine; but his 
intelligence appears not in doing from the first what is 
wise or well calculated, but in his capacity to learn 
enough of himself and of his world to enable him 
eventually to act wisely or effectively in new situations, 
to solve problems, to adopt new purposes. This means 
that we must learn to think of the child and to treat 
him, at least at first, as a mechanism, and to try to 
understand his workings. 

Again we must recognize that this mechanism 
differs from our artificial machines in the striking unity 
of its action and in the intimate interdependence of 
its parts. Anything happening to the child or going on 
inside him may affect all his processes: a glare of 

8 



THE CHILD AS AN ORGANISM 9 

light may affect his digestion, his digestion may affect 
his mood, his mood may affect his breathing or the 
workings of his heart; and this unity must be observed 
when we are dealing with his higher intellectual and 
emotional development as well as when we are con- 
cerned merely with his physical health. 

The child changes from day to day, not merely in 
size, but in the relative strength and activity of the 
various organs, in his interests, and in his capacities. 
We must recognize this fact of progressive change and 
not limit his opportunities or our outlook for the future 
because at a given moment everything seems to go well ; 
nor, on the other hand, need we despair because for the 
time being there are imperfect adjustments or unhappy 
incidents. Moreover, we must recognize that the 
child's progressive development results in part from 
inner forces, and in part from the very experiences 
through which he passes day by day. Hence, the 
importance not alone of " training" as commonly 
understood, which consists of supplying for the child 
controlled experiences, but of wise handling of experi- 
ences that constantly arise of themselves. 

Finally, we must recognize that, like other beings, 
the child is a unique individual. This does not mean 
that we must expect of each child the manifestations of 
genius or some striking peculiarity. It means that each 
child departs in greater or less degree from the mean or 
"average" in regard to every characteristic. We must 
avoid, therefore, the temptation to standardize our 
expectations and our demands. We must study rather 
to discover the more-or-less that is distinctive, to 
accept certain shortcomings as quite normal, to 



10 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

discover compensations worth cultivating, to adjust our 
demands to the capacities of the child, and to apply our 
stimuli and encouragement where they will do the most 
good. 

OUTLINE 

1. THE PHYSICAL BASIS 

a. Interdependence of organs and functions 

b. Responsiveness to environment 

c. Modifications resulting from responses 

2. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 

a. Inherent tendency to change 

b. Dependence upon external factors — physical, mental 

c. Differences between child and adult 

3. INDIVIDUAL VARIATION 

a. No two alike 

b. Essential race characters 

c. Normal range and family variations 

REFERENCES 
Popular 

Gulick, L. H. — Exercise and Rest: 

Russell Sage Foundation, Department of Child Hy- 
giene, Pub. No. 76 

Guyer, Michael F. — Being Well Born: 

Through Chap. VIII, "Mental and Nervous De- 
fects" 

Lay, Wilfrid — The Child's Unconscious Mind: 
Chap. VI, "The Aim of Education"; 
Chap. IX, "Conclusion — Medical Origin" 

Rose, "M. S. — Feeding the Family: 

(especially chapters on Child Feeding) 



THE CHILD AS AN ORGANISM 11 

Murray and Smith — Child Under Eight 
Tanner, A. E. — The Child 
Tyler, John Mason — Growth and Education 

Non-Technical 
Conklin, E. G. — Heredity and Environment: 

Chap. I, "Facts and Factors of Development" 

Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 
Modern Science Concerning Education: 
"Biology of Children in Relation to Education" 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: Pts. 
I and II 

MacKenzie, R. T. — Exercise in Education and Medicine: 
Chaps. I-VI 

Norsworthy and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 

Through Chap. XIV, "Physical Development of the 
Child" 

Sandiford, Peter — Mental and Physcial Life of School 
Children: Sees. I-V 

Terman, L. M. — Hygiene of the School Child: 

Chap. II, "The Physical Basis of Education"; 
Chap. IV, "The Factors Influencing Growth" 

Woodrow, H. — Brightness and Dullness in Children: 
Chap. IV, "Brains" 

Technical 
Benedict and Talbot — Metabolism and Growth from Birth 
to Puberty: 1-21, 32-36, 44-52. 69-72, 100, 128, 
176, 186 

Dennett, Roger H. — Exercise and Diet in Relation to 
Growth: 
New York Medical Journal, XCVII, 756-759, 1913 



12 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Hoobler, Raymond — Diseases Influencing Growth: 

New York Medical Journal, XCVII, 769-771, 1913 

Mendel, Lafayette B. — Nutrition and Growth 

Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology; Briefer Course: 
Pt. I, "The Original Nature of Man"; 
Pt. II, "The Psychology of Learning"; Chap. X, 

"The Laws of Learning in Animals", Chap. XI, 

"Associative Learning in Man"; 
Pt. Ill, "Individual Differences and Their Causes" 

Vincent, Swale — Glands of Internal Secretion 



3. HEALTH FACTORS 

In the day-by-day treatment of the child with a 
view both to present comfort and to future character 
and happiness, we cannot separate the mind from the 
body. The child is to be considered as a unity, and 
the body should receive its due share of consideration. 
While it is true that many physical ills have their source 
in mental or emotional derangements, it is equally true 
that many mental and emotional disturbances are 
caused by physical derangements. The body is basic 
in the sense that upon its health depends the energy 
and the balance of the mind. It is also in many ways 
more readily and more directly controlled. 

Since during infancy there cannot be any question 
of worry or hatred the primary consideration is physical 
health. Attention must accordingly be given from the 
start to the conditions that insure physical comfort. 
These conditions include such factors as food, ventila- 
tion, temperature, adequate and regular elimination 
from the bowels and bladder, abundant sleep, and 
freedom from irritation, pain or annoyance. 

OUTLINE 

1 . INTEEDEPENDENCE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM AND OTHER PARTS 
OF THE BODY 

a. The sense organs and the nervous system 

b. The muscles and the nervous system 

c. The glands and the nervous system 

d. The sympathetic nervous system 

e. Automatic adjustments 

13 



14 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

2. FACTORS IN PHYSICAL HEALTH 

a. Nutrition 

b. Oxygenation 

c. Elimination 

d. Circulation 

e. Exercise 

f. Recreation 

g. Rest and sleep 
h. Cleanliness 

3. DISTURBING FACTORS TO BE AVOIDED 

a. Physical irritation 

b. Pain 

c. Annoyance, fright, nagging, etc. 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Burbank, L. — The Training of the Human Plant 

Ditman, N. E. — Home Hygiene and Prevention of Disease 

Kinne and Cooley — Clothing and Health: 240-248 
Food and Health 

Non-Technical 
Cameron, H. C. — The Nervous Child 
Dennett, R. H. — The Healthy Baby 

Fisher, L. — Health Care of the Baby 

Health Care of the Growing Child: Pts. I and II 

Holt, L. E. — The Care and Feeding of Children 

Oppenheim, N. — The Development of the Child: Chap. II-IV, 
IX-XI 

Tweddell, F. — How to Take Care of the Baby 

Technical 
Ramsey, W. R. — Care and Feeding of Infants and Children 
Terman, L. M. — The Hygiene of the School Child 



HEALTH FACTORS 15 

Pamphlets 
Reports on "Minimum Standards for Children," issued by 
the U. S. Children's Bureau, Department of Labor, Wash- 
ington, D. C. : 

Series No. 1, Pub. No. 59 — Malnutrition; 
Series No. 4, Pub. No. 35 — Milk; 
Series No. 2, Pub. No. 8 — Infant Care; 
Series No. 5, Pub. No. 69 — Child Welfare Special; 
Series No. 4, Pub. No. 67 — Children's Year, A 
Brief Summary 



4. PHYSICAL DISTURBANCES 

The mental processes and the emotional states or 
moods of the child are easily modified by comparatively 
slight departures from the normal or routine conditions; 
and they in turn react vigorously upon the digestion, 
the circulation, the breathing, and the nerves. 

The petty frustration that stirs the child's anger, 
resentment, or shame, the sudden trifle that startles 
him, may initiate a long chain of serious interferences 
with the normal vegetative processes. It is also true 
that extreme pleasurable excitations produce unfavor- 
able reactions, especially through their effects upon the 
digestive system. 

On the other hand, the increased irritability of the 
fatigued child, the despondency or sulkiness associated 
with constipation, and the sluggishness of the poorly 
oxygenated organism, illustrate the dependence of 
essential elements in behavior upon physical conditions. 
Fatigue, not properly remedied, illustrates the tendency 
of many sets of reactions to develop into a chronic 
state, or a vicious circle. Eyestrain, defective hearing, 
obstructed breathing, carious teeth, blind abscesses or 
ulcers, flat feet, and other conditions of stress are 
common sources of difficulty in the child's development. 



16 



PHYSICAL DISTURBANCES 17 

OUTLINE 

EXTERNAL SOURCES OF DISTURBANCE AND IRRITATION 

a. Pain 

b. Chafing and pressure from clothes 

c. Extremes of temperature and humidity 

d. Strained or awkward positions 

e. Noises 

f. Glare 

ORGANIC SOURCES OF IRRITATION 

a. Eye defects 

b. Defects in hearing 

c. Obstructed breathing; adenoids 

d. Defective teeth 

e. Abscesses and ulcers; infected tonsils 

f . Flat feet 

g. Defects of heart and other organs 

FUNCTIONAL SOURCES OF IRRITATION 

a. Hunger or thirst 

b. Need for voiding bladder or bowels 

c. Constipation 

d. Fatigue 

REACTION BETWEEN THE EMOTIONS AND ORGANIC FUNC- 
TIONS 

a. The emotions and internal secretions 

b. The emotions and the muscles 

(1) Involuntary 

(2) Voluntary 

SECONDARY CAUSES OF DISTURBANCE 

a. Anger 

b. Feeling of slight or inferiority 

c. Worry or anxiety 

d. Envy and jealousy 

e. Various denials and repressions 



18 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Bruce, H. A. — Handicaps of Childhood: 87-95 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 20-44 

White, W. A. — The Mental Hygiene of Childhood: 

Chap. VII, "Problems: Education — Punishment" 

Non-Technical 
Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 
Modern Science Concerning Education: "Biology of 
Children in Relation to Education" (H. S. Jen- 
nings), 3-50 

Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning Education: 
"Mental and Moral Health in a Constructive 
School Program" and "Modern Conceptions of 
Mental Diseases" (Adolf Meyer), 103-153, 201-211 

Technical 
Cannon, W. B. — Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear, 
and Rage: 1-21, 184-214, 232-266 

Crile, G. W. — Man, an Adaptive Organism: 

Chap. VII, "Diseases of the Kinetic System"; 
Chap. XIII, "Pain, Laughter, and Weeping"; 
Chap. XIV, "Transformation of Energy and Acido- 
sis" 

Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 
Modern Science Concerning Education: "Primary 
Group Norms in Modern Education" (William 
J. Thomas), 1-50 

Wallin, J. E. W. — Mental Health of the School Child: 1-21, 
300-314, 315-336 



5. INFANCY AND ITS DISCIPLINE 

During the first twelve to fifteen months, the fife 
of the infant is characterized by the gradual separation 
from a shapeless bundle of wriggles and squeals, of 
more or less definite movements, more or less articulate 
sounds, and various expressions of mood and feeling. 
The outward movements are at first apparently 
random, unrelated to what is happening in the 
surroundings, or reflex, related only as a direct and 
immediate response to stimulation. In time we can 
see that a sound, instead of merely producing spas- 
modic or "startled" movements, will produce one 
effect if it is mother's footstep and a different one 
if it is father's voice. A change in illumination, instead 
of producing a stupid blinking, will produce one effect 
if it is brought about by the sight of the milk bottle 
and a different effect if it is accompanied by the sight 
of an unfriendly face. We say that the child begins to 
"recognize," which means that the elements of the 
environment, instead of being merely stimuli to general 
muscular contractions, gradually come to have the 
distinct effects of objects and persons, of pleasure or 
pain. 

The emergence of a different attitude toward, and a 
different response to, the various things and persons 
of the environment depends upon the child's receiving 
different kinds or degrees of satisfaction or annoyance 
from these various elements as they encroach upon 

19 



20 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

him through his senses. It is therefore important that 
during this early period there should be first of all 
undisturbed sleep, and secondly regular routine of 
feeding. The first is necessary for avoiding irritations, 
excitements, overstimulation; the second, for establish- 
ing a useful rhythm in the basic physiological proc- 
esses of nutrition and eumination. 

It is possible for the child during this period to 
vegetate most of the time and to learn many of the 
simple proprieties of his station in life. He will insist 
upon attention if he has learned that he can get it by 
insisting; or he will be content to remain ignored for a 
long period if he has learned that insistence does not 
help. He will insist upon getting everything he sees, 
or he will be content to play with the things merely in 
reach. He will imitate facial expressions and the feel- 
ings that go with them; and he will imitate gestures 
and tones of voice. 

His capacity to modify his simple reflexes by accept- 
ing substitutes and symbols for the direct satisfaction 
of his simple desires, and his tendency to reflect the 
actions and noises he observes, furnish the foundation 
for his discipline. The simple routine of attending to 
his needs, of avoiding disturbances, and of a happy 
atmosphere, accompanied by consistency in all dealings, 
are the essential requirements. 

OUTLINE 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERIOD 

a. Movements 

(1) Random 

(2) Reflex ^ 

(3) Imitative 



INFANCY AND ITS DISCIPLINE 21 

b. Sensorial Development 

(1) Touch and taste 

(2) Sight 

(3) Sound 

c. Emotions 

(1) Anger when frustrated 

(2) Fear when startled 

(3) Pleasure 

(4) Disgust or aversion ; pain 

(5) Hunger 

2. MODIFICATION OF BEHAVIOR 

a. Establishment of associations or conditioned reflexes 

b. Transition of sensations from stimuli to suggestions 

or symbols 

c. Establishment of routine by rhythm or repetition 

d. Imitation of movements, sounds, expression 

3. PROGRESS OF THE PERIOD 

a. Differentiation of articulate speech from cooing and 

babbling 

b. Manipulation of objects 

c. Recognition of people and things 

d. Distinction between permitted and forbidden actions 

4. SPECIAL ATTAINMENTS 

a. Sleeping when placed in certain position or place 

b. Waiting for food 

c. Regular bowel movements 

d. Following suggestions, warnings, etc. 

5. MANIFESTATIONS OF SEX 

a. Sucking thumb 

b. Cuddling 

c. Masturbation 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Cameron, H. C. — The Nervous Child 



22 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Read, Mary L. — Mothercraft Manual: 
Chap. VII, "Care of the Baby"; 
Chap. X, "Education of the Little Child"; 
Chap. XII, "A Curriculum for Babyhood" 

Non-Technical 
King, Irving — Psychology of Child Development: 

Chap. II, "Primary Problems Relating to the 
Child's Earliest Experience" 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 

Chap. V, "The Early Development of the Human 
Infant"; 

Chap. VI, "Development of Individualistic In- 
stincts"; 

Chap. VIII, "Development of Instincts — Imita- 
tion"; 

Chap. IX, "Development of Adaptive Instincts — 
Play" 

Waddle, Charles W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 
95-100, 115, 138, 156-159, 160, 162, 173-179, 180, 
257, 261-262, 283-284, 289, 292 

Watson, John B. — The Psychology of Infancy: ■ 
Scientific Monthly, December, 1921 

Technical 

Holt, E. B. — The Freudian Wish: 

Chap. Ill, "The Wish in Ethics" 

Watson, John B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a 
Behaviorist: 

Chap. VI, "Hereditary Modes of Response: Emo- 
tions," especially pages 198-207, 212-214; 

Chap. VII, "Hereditary Modes of Response: In- 
stinct," especially pages 236-249; 

Chap. XI, "Personality and Its Disturbance" 



6. OBEDIENCE 

For the health and safety of the infant and the 
inexperienced child, it is absolutely essential that he be 
directed in his actions. Obedience is the means by 
which the older, more experienced person guides the 
child and protects him against the dangers of impulsive 
action. 

Yet obedience is not to be cultivated as being in 
itself an enoTof our training. It must be considered an 
instrument through which the child is led to discover 
standards of conduct outside of his own impulses and 
untrained desires. He is to pass from blind impulse 
and whims to the guidance of personal authority; and 
he is to pass further from obedience to personal author- 
ity and external masters to self-control and obedience 
to higher laws, which is true freedom. While each of 
these modes is more dominant in its own particular 
period, we must not assume that each is to be cultivated 
exclusively, e. g., that early childhood is to be given 
entirely to obedience to personal authority. Rather 
should all possible opportunity be given to cultivate 
the higher forms at the same time that the lower 
forms are used. 

Disobedience and stubbornness are not to be con- 
sidered as indications of a strong will. On the con- 
trary, they are generally due to the child's inability 
to grasp and master himself. In certain cases they 
may be the natural result in the child of wrong handling 

23 



24 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

in his earlier years. Ready obedience, on the other 
hand, may in many cases indicate merely lack of purpose 
and the acceptance of suggestions as the easiest line to 
follow. 

OUTLINE 

1. THE NECESSITY OF OBEDIENCE 

a. Guidance in infancy 

b. Responsibility for decision in childhood 

(1) For health 

(2) For safety 

(3) For conduct generally 

c. Formation of important habits 

2. DANGERS OF OBEDIENCE 

a. Submission to the will of others 

b. Weakening of responsibility, discretion, and initiative 

c. Conflict between action and purpose 

3. OBTAINING THE CHILD'S COOPERATION 

a. Secure confidence 

b. Develop mutual understanding and community of 

aims 

c. Avoid rude intrusion upon the child's plans and 

purposes 

d. Avoid unnecessary, arbitrary, or thoughtless com- 

mands 

4. SUBLIMATION OF OBEDIENCE 

a. Infant yields to suggestion 

b. Child follows guidance 

c. Later accepts personal authority 

d. Eventually acts according to conscience, principles, 

or law 



OBEDIENCE 25 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 97-162 

Gilman, Charlotte P. — Concerning Children: 

Chap. II, "Effect of Minding on the Mind"; 
Chap. Ill, "Two and Two Together" 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
Chap. VI, "The First Great Law" 

Non-Technical 

Griggs, E. H. — Moral Education: 145-195 

Kerr, Le Grand — Care and Training of Children: 146-161 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 203-215 

Sisson, E. O. — Essentials of Character: 63-74 

Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 
Chap. VIII, "Under Law" 

Technical 

Smith, Theodate L. — Obstinacy and Obedience: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XII, 27-54, 1905 



7. PUNISHMENT 

Punishment originates in a primitive impulse akin 
to vindictiveness. It is nevertheless seriously justified 
by many, and inflicted for the purpose of preventing 
the repetition of wrongdoing. This is on the assump- 
tion (to a large degree gratuitous) that punishment acts 
as a deterrent or inhibiter. Something may also be 
said for the moral effect of penance — the curative 
value of an experience that compels reflection, contri- 
tion, and new resolutions. 

We seek to prevent wrongdoing by a variety of 
means; but when it does occur, as it will, we should 
direct our attention to the child's weaknesses and 
temptations, and seek to overcome these, rather than 
to deal with the offense or with the resulting damage as 
the important thing. 

The need for punishment arises usually in our 
failure to understand the child's impulses and reasoning. 
With our superior strength we should impose penalties 
only for the benefit of the child and its further growth, 
not for our own comfort or relief. 

Whatever form of punishment we use, we should 
avoid producing antagonisms, estrangements, fears, or 
other results that are in any way worse than the 
offense we are trying to eradicate. Account should be 
taken of the child's mental state at the time the offense 
was committed, of the mental and moral development 
he has attained, of his attitude and his individual 
peculiarities. 

26 



PUNISHMENT 27 

OUTLINE 

1. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PUNISHMENT 

a. Instinctive striking back 

b. Retaliation as "Justice" 

c. Penalty as deterrent 

d. Remedial treatment for moral improvement of of- 

fender 

2. EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT 

a. Children's idea of punishment 

b. Inhibitory and deterrent 

c. Temptations to evasion and dishonesty 

d. Antagonisms and fears 

e. Development of hardness and cruelty 

f. Repression 

g. A negative agent at best 

3. FORMS OF PUNISHMENT 

a. "Natural" punishment 

(1) Advantages 

(2) Fallacies 

b. Corporal punishment 

c. Privations 

• (1) Of essentials 
(2) Of indulgences 

d. Imposition of tasks and hardships 

e. Disapprobations 

4. POSITIVE PRINCIPLES 

a. Make clear connection between offense and punish- 

ment 

b. Separate offense and offender 

(1) Discover motives 

(2) Avoid "bad names" 

c. Adapt progressively to child's level of intelligence and 

moral development 

d. Use child's concurrence and cooperation 

5. NEGATIVE PRINCIPLES 

a. Avoid humiliation 

b. Avoid anger when manifesting indignation 

c. Avoid excessive or cruel penalties 



28 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Abbott, Ernest H. — On the Training of Parents: 
Chap. Ill, "The Rule of Wit" 

Adler, Felix — The Punishment of Children 

Allen, A. W. — Home, School, and Vacation: 138-141 

Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 97-168 

Gilman, Charlotte P. — Concerning Children: 

Chap. II, "The Effect of Minding on the Mind": 
Chap. Ill, "Two and Two Together" 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
Chap. II, "The Problem of Punishment" 
Sons and Daughters: 20-26, 245-260 

Montessori, Maria — The Montessori Method: 
Chap. V, "Discipline" 

Non-Technical 

Griggs, E. H. — Moral Education: 

Chap. XV, "The Nature and Function of Correc- 
tive Discipline"; 
Chap. XVI, "Administration of Corrective Disci- 
pline" 

Kerr, Le Grand — Care and Training of Children: 162 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 

Chap. XI, "Development of Instincts — Regula- 
tive" 
The Individual in the Making: 205-215 

Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 

Chap. VIII, "The Struggle with Law; On the Side 
of the Law; The Wise Law-Giver" 



PUNISHMENT 29 

Technical 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: First Series, 26-28; 
Second Series, 203-217, 218-233 
Punishment as Seen by Children: 

Pedagogical Seminary, III, 235-245, 1894 

Pfister, Oscar — The Psychoanahjtic Method: 558-561 

Sears, C. H. — Home and School Punishments: 

Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 159-187, 1899 

Smith, Theodate, L. — Obstinacy and Obedience: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XII, 27-54, 1905 

Spencer, Herbert — Education: 

Chap. Ill, " Moral Education" 



8. IMAGINATION 

Imagination is the capacity of seeing things with the 
eyes shut tight. It may mean the idle and passive 
fantasy of the irresponsible dawdler and day-dreamer; 
but it may also mean the vision of the statesman or 
prophet or poet. It begins in the mere remembrances 
of past experience with concrete things and sensations. 
It develops through the child's dreams and fancies, 
and through his plays and the assignment of personality 
to his toys and to the other inanimate objects around 
him. Because of the child's ability to break off the 
elements of his experience from their original settings 
and to recombine them, imagination becomes, finally, 
the directed and purposeful recombination of the 
fragments of experience into new wholes. 

Imagination is of tremendous daily importance in 
the adjustment of the growing personality to its environ- 
ment. It is the source of sympathy and understanding 
of other persons. It makes possible the substitution 
first of words and other symbols and finally of formless 
feelings of relationship and meaning for the original 
crude representations of objects and sensations ex- 
perienced. In this way, thinking comes to be more 
and more abstract. Imagination plays a large part in 
the ability of the child to translate impressions re- 
ceived through one sense — for example, hearing — 
into understanding and action, as when the spoken 

30 



IMAGINATION 31 

instruction is translated into the appropriate deed, or 
when the spoken description is translated into a clear 
picture of the scene or object described. It plays a 
large part in the development of the child's aspirations, 
since through it he utilizes his reading, the theater, 
movies, games, and other secondhand experiences to 
think himself into a large variety of situations, and 
to select for himself the kind of life and conduct that 
will serve as his model. Finally, it plays an important 
role in the making of practical plans, in the solution of 
problems, in the making of concrete things, and in the 
invention of new devices to meet new situations. 

To make possible the development of the imagina- 
tion, there should be provided ample opportunities for 
free play with a great variety of materials. There 
should be stories appropriate to the successive years, 
and pictures at all times. The child should have access 
to various natural scenes, to institutions, to activities 
of the community, and to the thought of others. All 
children are given more or less to day-dreaming, which 
is the normal outlet of the unconscious desires for self- 
assertion and adventure; and this practice serves to a 
limited extent in preparing the child in advance for 
many situations he will have to meet. An excessive 
indulgence in day-dreaming is apt, however, to draw 
the child into himself and away from the realities and 
responsibilities of the common life. In such cases, 
special efforts must be made to provide an abundance of 
energetic and satisfying activities with real things and 
real people. 



32 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

OUTLINE 

1. ORIGIN AND NATURE OF IMAGINATION 

a. Memory of sensory experience 

b. Reproductive imagination 

c. Productive imagination 

(1) Passive 

(2) Creative 

2. DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGINATION 

a. Natural growth 

(1) Dreams and wishes 

(2) Abstraction 

(3) Animism 

b. Stimulation through special experiences 

(1) Stories 

(2) Games 

(3) Toys 

(4) Pictures 

(5) Dramatics 

c. Apparent decline of imagination in adults 

3. PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE OF IMAGINATION 

a. Sympathy and understanding 

b. Relation to thinking 

c. Reading and hearing words 

d. Planning, constructing, and inventing 

e. Hopes and ambitions 

f . Religious experience 

4. EXCEPTIONAL AND MORBID ASPECTS OF IMAGINATION 

a. Day-dreaming 

b. Imaginary companions 

c. Fear 

d. Lying 



IMAGINATION 33 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
Chap. Ill, "When Your Child Imagines Things"; 
Chap. IV, "The Lies Children Tell"; 
Chap. V, "Being Afraid" 

Harvey, N. A. — Imaginary Playmates and Other Mental 
Phenomena of Children: 
Chap. I, "Imaginary Playmates" 

Nice, Margaret M. — A Child's Imagination: 

Pedagogical Seminary, XXVI, 173-201, 1919 

Smith, Nora A. — Training the Imagination: 
The Outlook, LXIV, 459-461, 1900 

Non-Technical 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 136- 
139, 155, 259-268 

Nors worthy and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 
Chap. IX, "Imagination" 

Sully, James — Study of Childhood: 25-63, 203 ff., 211 ff. 

Technical 

Chalmers, Lillian H. — Studies in Imagination: 
Pedagogical Seminary, VII, 111-123, 1900 

Dewey, John — Imagination and Expression: 

Teachers' College Bulletin, March, 1919 

Hall, G. Stanley — Aspects of Child Life and Education: 
53-83 

Winch, W. H. — Some Relations between Substance Memory 
and Productive Imagination in School Children: 
British Journal of Psychology, IV, 95-125, 1911 



9. TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD 

The child is not untruthful to begin with. He tries 
to give a correct statement of an occurrence, but often 
his version does not harmonize with the adult's under- 
standing of facts and motives. Sometimes this is due 
to his inexperience and awkwardness in interpretation 
and expression. As his education progresses and his 
vocabulary is enlarged, misstatements due to these 
causes will gradually disappear. At other times mis- 
statements are due to defects of sensation and percep- 
tion and confusion of the imagined and remembered 
with the immediate and actual. While such defects 
and confusions are natural at an early age, they should 
be corrected by education and training. Otherwise the 
child gradually learns to take advantage of untruth, 
and may acquire the habit of using it for a variety of 
purposes. The treatment of untruth should be directed 
to finding and removing the causes of temptations and 
to cultivating ideals of honor and truthfulness. 

OUTLINE 
1. LIES THAT ARE NOT LIES 

a. The child says what he means; but his meaning is 

not clear, and his power of expression is limited 

b. Defects of sensation hamper recognition of the truth, 

especially defective seeing and hearing 

c. Defects of perception 

(1) Yielding to suggestion 

(2) Drawing unwarranted inferences 

(3) Jumping to conclusions 

34 



TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD 35 

d. Defects of interpretation, influenced by lack of experi- 
ence, by analogies, by own wishes, by sense of 
fitness 

2. LIES AND REALITY 

a. The child's hold on reality is weak 

b. Dreams are not distinguished from waking percep- 

tions 

c. Memories are confused with the immediate realities 

d. Imagination overlaps the actual 

e. Invention and make-believe invade concrete experi- 

ence 

3. LIES AND THE SELF 

a. Escape from punishment 

b. Malingering; escape from the disagreeable 

c. Lies to "enemies"; truth to "friends" 

d. Secretiveness 

e. The braggart; to astonish and mystify others 

f. The call for attention; exhibitionism 

4. LIES AND EXTERNAL PRESSURE 

a. Excitement and passion of games 

b. Rivalries and distractions 

c. Frightening children into lying 

d. Challenging children into lying 

e. Example of older people 

5. CONSCIENCE AND HEROISM 

a. Lies to shield or help others 

b. Lies to save the feelings 

c. Prevarication 

6. PREVENTIVE TREATMENT OF LYING 

a. Find cause 

b. Avoid restrictions, intimidations, frights, etc., that 

furnish the temptations 



36 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

7. CONSTRUCTIVE EFFORTS TOWARD TRUTHFULNESS 

a. Enrichment of sense experience 

b. Training in expression 

c. Experience with reality; hand work; nature study; 

art; adventure 

d. Cultivation of understanding through conversation, 

discussion, and reading 

e. Cultivation of ideals 

f. Environment in which truthful relations are taken 

for granted among adults; between adults and 
children 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 43-46 

Gould, F. J. — Moral Instruction in Theory and Practice: 
139-145 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
Chap. IV, "The Lies Children Tell" 

Anonymous — A Question of Conduct; Should He Have Told? 
The Outlook, July 12, 1913 

Non-Technical 
Adler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children: 

Chap. XI, "The Duty of Acquiring Knowledge" 

Brill, A. A. — Fundamental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis: 
200-208 

Drummond, W. B. — An Introduction to Child Study: 287-292 

Evans, Elida — The Problem of the Nervous Child: 253-256 

Healy, William — Mental Conflicts and Misconduct: 72-73 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 129-131 

Leonard, Eugenie A. — A Parent's Study of Children's Lies: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XXVII, 105-136, 1920 



TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD 37 

Sisson, E. 0. — Essentials of Character: 85-91 
Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 251-261, 438-439 
Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 205-206, 209, 230, 290, 298 

Technical 

Barnes, Earl — Studies? in Education: Second Series, 308- 
313 

Hall, G. Stanley — Educational Problems: 

Vol. I, Chap. VI, "Children's Lies: Their Psychol- 
ogy and Pedagogy" 

Latham, H. L. — A Study of Falsehood: 

Pedagogical Seminary, XXI, 504-522, 1914 



10. CURIOSITY 

Plato called curiosity the " Mother of Knowledge," 
and it may be thought of as an appetite for new experi- 
ence or for new kinds of experience. In the infantile 
stage it appears to be simply the desire for the satis- 
factions that come from new sensations — seeing, hear- 
ing, tasting, touching — and accounts for much of the 
child's unlimited capacity for getting into mischief. 
Curiosity appears not only in the incessant questioning 
and in the handling and " trying" of all objects, but also 
in the prying into closed spaces, in the playing of hiding- 
and-finding games and in numberless experiments with 
his own organs and surrounding objects, such as distort- 
ing the vision by pressing the eyeballs and as peering 
between his fingers; and later it appears as the interest 
in "stunts" and puzzles. The child should at each 
stage be encouraged to find the answers to his questions 
or the solutions to his problems, rather than to get 
them ready-made from others or to abandon them 
because the solutions involve too much effort. 

From this interest in the novel and hidden or forbid- 
den may come exploratory wanderings. At first an 
unconscious discomfort urges the child to find what lies 
around the corner or beyond the horizon; later a 
wondering about the foot of the rainbow or what fate 
has in store for him; and at last, perhaps, a search for 
the hidden meaning of life and destiny or for the lost 
Atlantis. 

38 



CURIOSITY 39 

This irresistible impulse to reach in thought and in 
feeling beyond the immediate present is of great im- 
portance in education, since it makes possible the fixing 
of the attention so necessary for all kinds of learning, 
as well as the leading on to new levels of thought, of 
experience, and of ideals or purpose. The direction 
and the satisfaction of curiosity cannot be left to chance. 

Sublimation of curiosity may take the form of 
systematic research in some branch of learning ; of active 
investigation into some current problem; of the pro- 
fessionalizing of some special interest as in certain 
branches of law, medicine, industrial engineering, 
administration, detective work, and so on; of the de- 
velopment of a hobby involving the mastery of special- 
ized information, exploration and the like; and of 
habitual open-mindedness. 

Repression of curiosity, especially on the sex side, 
leads often to the eavesdropping or "Peeping-Tom" 
types of perversion; or to general indifference about 
matters of no immediate concern ; to discouragement of 
the imagination ; or to certain types of day-dreaming, in 
which there is escape from the hardships and responsibili- 
ties of progressive living. A restricted or repressive envi- 
ronment may also result in making gossip or other trivial 
interests replace a natural curiosity that is normally 
capable of cultivation into forms that are worth while. 

OUTLINE 
1. EARLY MANIFESTATIONS 

a. Sensory and motor trials 

(1) Staring 

(2) Listening 

(3) Grasping and tasting 



40 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

b. Games — Hide-and-Seek type 

c. Searching activities 

d. Comparison with animals 

2. QUESTIONS 

a. Forms of questions — What, Why 

b. Answering questions 

c. Idle questioning 

d. Stunts, puzzles, tricks, games 

e. Sex differences 

f . Reanimation of curiosity at puberty 

3. EXPLOEATION AND VAGRANCY 

a. The meaning of runaway at various ages 

(1) The aimless wandering off 

(2) Planned runaway 

(3) Influence of other factors 

b. Sex differences 

c. Forcing of closed spaces, drawers, cupboards, etc. 

4. IMPORTANCE FOR EDUCATION 

a. Source of interest and attention 

b. Grading of subjects, topics and methods according to 

stages of development 

c. Utilization of experimental method 

d. Leading on from things, to facts, principles, laws 

5. DIRECTION AND SUBLIMATION 

a. Variety of occupation and experience 

b. Travel and its substitutes — reading, theater, visit- 

ing, and visitors 

c. Variety of studies, access to satisfying information 

d. Variety of personal contacts 

e. From trivialities and gossip and scandal to higher 

standards of "news" 

6. PERVERSIONS 

a. Runaways 

b. Lying, romancing; day-dreaming 

c. Peeping-Tom; voyeur 

d. Eavesdropping, informer, gossip, and scandalmonger 



CURIOSITY 41 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 51-61, "An- 
swering the Children's Questions" 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 75-78, 91-95, 

112-113, 151-154, 219-222 
Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 

Chap. XXIII, "The Skeptic", 130-131, 
Sisson, E. O. — Essentials of Character: 9-12, 80-85 
Swift, E. J. — Youth and the Race: 

Chap. I, "The Spirit of Adventure" 
Waddle, Charles W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 
116-118, 218 

Non-Technical 
Groos, Karl — The Play of Animals: 214-222 
Hall and Smith — Aspects of Child Life and Education: 
"Curiosity and Interest" (G. Stanley Hall), 84-141 
(reprinted from Pedagogical Seminary, X, 315- 
358, 1903). (Although technical in form, this 
paper is very concrete and helpful to an under- 
standing of the many-sided manifestations of the 
impulses studied.) 
Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
Chap. X, "Curiosity," 59-60 

Technical 
Hall, G. Stanley. — Adolescence: Vol. I, 85-86 
Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 

"The Questioning Age," 75-90, 225, 240-242, 445- 
447, 485 
Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology; Briefer Course: 
63-66 



11. FEAR 

Contrary to common belief, it appears from experi- 
ments that fear of specific objects or dangers is not a 
natural instinct but a cultivated attitude that is neither 
useful nor unavoidable. Infants from very birth 
manifest fear under certain well-defined conditions, 
namely, a sharp sudden noise, a sudden pain, or being 
suddenly dropped, or jarred, especially when just falling 
asleep. The fear of dogs and other natural objects 
seems to be acquired through association with the 
barking, etc., and to be transferred to strange faces, 
silent animals, fuzzy objects, strangely moving objects. 
Any sudden sound or movement may result in a fright ; 
and any object, person or situation associated with pain 
or with fright may later arouse fear. In this way almost 
any object may become a fear object. Later the child's 
imagination projects the feeling of fear into the dark- 
ness, into his solitude, into his discomfort or sickness, 
or indeed into any mysterious situation. 

Fear in infancy brings about clasping and other 
random movements; later it leads either to running- 
away or escape movements, or to a more or less com- 
plete inhibition of all voluntary movement. This 
"paralyzing" effect reaches the heart and blood- 
vessels on the one hand, and the central associative 
tracts of the brain on the other. Frequent frights 
result in discouragement, timidity, secretiveness, and 
anxiety. Various " phobias" involving serious morbid 

42 



FEAR 43 

conditions have been traced to infantile or childish 
shocks related to fright. The bigoted and hostile 
attitude toward strange ideas, toward foreigners, 
toward innovations of various kinds, are in part manifes- 
tations of unreasoned fear persisting from childhood. 
In general, persecution and resort to violence for 
attaining public ends represent traces of the infantile 
feeling of helplessness in the presence of danger or of 
mysterious power. 

Although fear may be effectively used as a deterrent 
for infants and children, the wisdom of its employment 
for " disciplinary " purposes is something worse than 
doubtful. We must distinguish between fear and 
caution, the former resting on ignorance, the latter on 
knowledge. The child's imagination enables him to 
transfer monsters and hobgoblins from stories and 
menageries to the vacant darkness. But the same 
capacity enables him to substitute the unfavorable 
judgment of others, or of his conscience, for the physical 
pain or punishment which he has already learned to 
hate and to fear, and thus to sublimate his cowardice 
into the " fear of God." 

Since it is the unknown, or the unpredictable, or the 
uncontrollable, that causes fear, the mental health and 
the courage of the child require extensive and intensive 
knowledge of his environment and of natural phenom- 
ena, and the wide range of experience that gives mastery 
and self-confidence. Since fear is the feeling of helpless- 
ness and incompetence, we should avoid discouragement 
through fright and ridicule; and we should give the 
child every opportunity to acquire that control over 
himself and over his environment which is essential for 



44 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

his development and self-expression. The best anti- 
dotes for fear are curiosity that can find satisfaction, 
and opportunity for the free outlet of the normal 
impulses. 

OUTLINE 

1. SOURCES OF FEAR 

a. Frights 

(1) Startling sounds 

(2) Sudden jar or dropping 

(3) Sudden and unexpected pain 

b. Substituted fright-objects 

(1) Animals 

(2) Ugly faces, etc. 

(3) Furry surfaces 

c. Projected fright-conditions 

(1) Darkness 

(2) Height 

(3) Solitude 

(4) Strange persons and objects 

(5) Stories 

d. Associated fright-concepts 

(1) Authority, punishment, threats, brutality, etc. 

(2) Judgment of others, disapproval, scolding, nag- 

ging, ridicule 

2. EFFECTS OF FEAR 

a. Paralyzing and inhibitory 

b. Flight 

c. Discouragement 

d. Anxiety 

e. Secretiveness, lying 

f. Cruelty, persecution, bigotry 

3. USES OF FEAR 

a. Necessaiy deterrent in infancy 

b. Cultivation of caution 

c. Abhorrence of anti-social impulses 



FEAR 45 

4. PREVENTION AND TREATMENT 

a. Avoid frights 

b. Familiarize with environment and phenomena 

c. Exalt courage and heroism 

d. Avoid ridicule 

e. Cultivate curiosity and exact knowledge 

f . Substitute reason for impulse 

g. Make game of resisting shocks 

h. Direct aversions toward the mean and unworthy 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Birney, Mrs. Theodore — Childhood: 

Chap. Ill, "Fear, Anxiety, and Grief" 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow : 

Chap. V, "Being Afraid" 
Mosso, Angelo — Fear: 

Chap. XIII, "Fear in Children, Dreams" 
Rowe, S. H. — Fear in the Discipline of Children: 

The Outlook, LX, 234, September 24, 1898 

Non-Technical 
Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 

Modern Science Concerning Education: "Practical 

and Theoretical Problems in Instinct and Habit" 

(J. B. Watson), 51-99 
King, Irving — The Psychology of Child Development: 56-63 
Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 99-104 
St. John, E. P. — Child Nature and Child Nurture: 

Chap. IV, "How to Deal with the Child's Fears" 
Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 

Chap. VI, "Subject to Fear" 
Wallas, G. — The Great Society: 

Chap. VI, "Fear" 



46 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Technical 
Feink, H. W. — Morbid Fears and Compulsions: 122-123, 
252, 263-266; 
Chap. VIII, "The Psychology of Anxiety Hysteria" 

Hall, G. Stanley — A Genetic Study of Fear: 

American Journal of Psychology, XXL, 149 fi\, 1914 

Loed, H. G. — Psychology of Courage: 
Chap. I-X, XIII 

McDougall, W. — An Introduction to Social Psychology: 
50-55 

Sidis, B. — Fear, Anxiety, and Psychopathic Maladies: 

Journal of Abnormal Psychology, VI, 107 fi\, 1911- 
1912 

Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- 
haviorist: 198-206 

Williams, T. A. — Fear and Its Cure: 

National Education Association Addresses and Pro- 
ceedings, 1914, 836 



12. IMITATION AND SUGGESTION 

Imitation, which is a universal characteristic of 
human beings of all ages, is to be thought of not as 
representing a psychological quality or faculty, but as 
the result of certain relations between the individual 
and others. Any sensation or act that impresses the 
child, whether through its intensity, through its 
frequency, or through its pleasurable accompaniment, 
will set up a reaction that tends to repeat the sensation, 
or the reflex. Thus, a flash of light that makes him 
blink (without frightening him) will result presently in a 
succession of blinking. From imitating sounds and 
gestures and movements, the child proceeds to react to 
suggestions in the form of words, which at first have no 
meaning except that they are associated with, and 
suggest, actions. New words represent ideas and he 
reacts to these. In short, he learns to understand other 
people, to respond to their verbal expressions, in part 
by learning the meaning of what is said or done to him 
in terms of his own reaction to the impression he 
receives. Thus imitation is for the young child, as it 
is for the young of many other animals, the process 
through which he acquires a large part of his adjust- 
ment to his surroundings. 

At about three years of age, as self-consciousness 
begins to take form, there appears a period of con- 
trariness, which may be thought of as the child's 
experimentation in self-control or self-reliance. It is 

47 



48 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

as though the child, seeing himself respond automati- 
cally to suggestions from others, wonders whether he has 
any control in the matter, and assures himself of his 
own " freedom" by resisting or opposing these sugges- 
tions. This stage presents a difficult problem unless 
we are prepared to help the child find himself rather 
than to insist upon our greater power. The opportunity 
to discover his freedom in relation to his games, to the 
making of things (large blocks, sand pile, etc.) that 
give him models from which he may depart to his 
heart's desire, may avoid "conflict of wills." The 
simplest, the most primitive assertion of individuality 
is just this inversion, an imitation by doing the opposite. 

Imitation shows itself in a new phase when the 
period of rivalry sets in, at about seven to nine years. 
Here the self-assertiveness, or desire for notice, takes 
the form of seeking to excel others. This is as though 
the child, ignorant of his own possibilities and of the 
resources of his environment, gets suggestions of what 
to do from the doings of others ; but gets the satisfaction 
of distinctiveness from doing the same thing in a 
superlative or, at least, superior degree. 

The development of the child's personality should 
lead to the point where he deliberately selects the 
models he is to follow, where he selects different models 
for different purposes, not following his hero bindly in 
all things, and where he finally designs his own behavior 
or character pattern along distinctive lines. 

The suggestibility of the child places upon those 
responsible for the direction of his development the 
obligation of surrounding him with worthy specimens 
of sound and form and personality, whether at home 



IMITATION AND SUGGESTION 49 

or in school or on the street, whether in the spoken 
word or in the book, whether in the approvals or dis- 
approvals, and above all in actual conduct. Imitation 
will be influenced by the affections; but often enough a 
person who has aroused dislike will have made a 
sufficiently strong impression to bring about uncon- 
scious imitation. 

While imitativeness with passivity results in flat, 
conventionalized types of human beings, imitativeness 
supplies the aggressive, purposeful person his greatest 
resource for original and creative activities. 

OUTLINE 

1. SOURCES 

a. Motor outlet for stimulation 

b. Reflex tending to reproduce stimulus, or to repetition 

of reflex 

c. Effects of sounds, grimaces, movements 

2. DEVELOPMENT 

a. Repetition 

b. Obedience to suggestion or associated word, gesture, 

etc. 

c. Response to idea 

d. Dramatization 

e. Voluntary choice of models 

f . Original recombinations 

3. PRACTICAL EFFECTS 

a. Protective value in infancy 

b. Basis for language and other learning 

c. Social cohesion 

d. Effects upon sympathy and group attitudes 



50 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

4. APPLICATIONS 

a. Selection of models for child's environment 

b. Opportunity for self-assertion without conflict 

c. Affection to reinforce guidance 

d. Graded progression to individuality 

e. Avoidance of overstressing either the conventional 

proprieties or the extreme variants 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 

Chap. VIII, " Development 'of Adaptive Instincts" 

Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 

Chap. XV, "Growth in Control of the Body" 

Non-Technical 

Bogardus, E. S. — Essentials of Social Psychology: 

Chap. V, "The Social Operation of Imitation"; 
Chap. VI, "Suggestion"; 
Chap. VII, "Imitation"; 
Chap. VIII, "Phenomena" 

Gault, R. H. — Suggestion and Suggestibility: 

American Journal of Sociology, XXV, 185-194, 1919 

McDougall, William — An Introduction to Social Psychol- 
ogy: 96-107, 325-345 

Norsworthy and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 70-73 

Woodworth, R. S. — Psychology: 317-319, 546-550 

Technical 

Brown, Warner — Individual and Sex Differences in Sug- 
gestibility 

King, Irving — Psychology of Child Development: 
Chap. X, "Imitation" 



IMITATION AND SUGGESTION 51 

Sandiford, Peter — Mental and Physical Life of School 
Children: 
Chap. XII, " Imitation and Suggestion" 

Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- 
haviorist: 259 

Woodworth, R, S. — Dynamic Psychology; 66, 181-191 



13. INSTINCT AND HABIT 

Every normal child is born with a nervous system 
that is so arranged that various stimulations of the 
skin or of the sense organs bring about fixed responses. 
These responses to stimulation are unavoidable and in 
many cases can be brought about in the first place in 
no way except by the corresponding stimulation. 
Certain combinations of these reactions are called 
instincts, and they are often related to the adaptive 
adjustment of the child to his surroundings, as in the 
sucking response to an object brought into the mouth. 
From time to time, in the course of the child's develop- 
ment, there appear new modes of responding to the 
stimulations aroused by the environment; and some of 
the earlier instincts in turn disappear. 

These native modes of reacting to the environment, 
and the spontaneous interests and desires, are capable 
of considerable modification, or of relatively permanent 
fixation. The fixed modes of behavior, whether 
identical with the oringinal ones, or modifications of 
them, are called habits; and these habits may eventually 
represent practically the whole of the adult scheme 
of conduct or character — that is, the unfailing mode of 
action either as a matter of routine or as a matter of 
responding to whatever new situation may present 
itself. The formation of habits thus comes to be of 
prime importance in the guidance of the child's develop- 
ment. 

52 



INSTINCT AND HABIT 53 

The fixation of primitive modes of action comes 
about ordinarily from continued repetition. But the 
infant soon outgrows both the need and the opportunity 
to repeat his primary responses without modification. 
The modification of the instinctive activities is illus- 
trated by the process through which the secretions of 
the salivary glands (watering of the mouth) comes to be 
a response to stimulation far removed from that which 
is the primary or original " cause" of the action, 
namely, the tasting of satisfying (palatable) food. 
We gradually substitute the sight or odor of food as a 
stimulus to salivation, then the sight of a picture, 
perhaps, then the mention of food, or the sound of the 
dinner bell, or the sight of printed words suggesting 
food, or a dinner invitation. That is to say, in the 
course of development, the child is capable of responding 
automatically in a typical way to a variety of stimuli 
that have been substituted for the original stimulus. 

In the formation of habits the substitutions are 
facilitated by pleasurable emotional accompaniments; 
they are retarded or prevented by unpleasurable ac- 
companiments. This is true whether the child is 
" learning" to form intellectual associations, or purely 
muscular acts; and it is true in the formation of associa- 
tions that result in attitudes toward people, toward 
ideas, etc. 

Education, or character formation, or training, 
may be considered as a process of instinct-modification, 
or habit-formation, and these involve not merely 
repetitions (practise) but also the free and energetic 
discharge of pleasurable feeling. The education of the 
individual should be thought of as a continuous 



54 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

process, never finished; and eventually the child must 
come to direct his own habit formation as a conscious 
and deliberate adaptation to ideals. 



OUTLINE 

1. INHERITED BEHAVIOR PATTERNS 

a. Stimulus and response 

b. Kinds of native responses 

c. Succession and fading out of instincts 

2. MODIFICATION OF INSTINCTS 

a. Conditioned reflex and association 

b. Inhibition 

c. "Learning" 

3. FACTORS IN HABIT FORMATION 

a. Intensity of stimulation or action 

b. Frequency and duration of "practise" 

c. Emotional element 

4. HABIT AND SELF DIRECTION 

a. Habit as acquired behavior pattern 

b. Continued capacity for modification 

c. Influence of suggestion and ideals 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Goddard, H. H. — Psychology of the Normal and Subnormal: 
Chap. XII, "Habit" 

Grtjenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 167-176 

Holmes, A. W. — Principles of Character Making: 94-103, 
110-112, 114-124; 
Chap. VI, "The Making and Breaking of Habits'^. 



INSTINCT AND HABIT 55 

Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 
Modern Science Concerning Education: "Practical 
and Theoretical Problems in Instinct and Habits" 
(J. B. Watson), 55-99 

Non-Technical 
Norsworth and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 

Chap. II, "The Characteristics of Original Nature"; 
Chap. Ill, "Tendencies Resulting in Action; Non- 
Social Instincts"; 
Chap. IV, "The Social Instincts"; 
Chap. XI, "General Tendencies of all the Tenden- 
cies — Habit and Learning" 

Thorndike, E. L. — Principles of Teaching Based on Psy- 
chology: 
Chap. Ill, "Instincts and Capacities"; 
Chap. VII, "Attention"; 
Chap. XI, "Responses of Conduct" 

Waddle, C. W. — An Introduction to Child Psychology: 
Chap. V, "Non-Learned Human Behavior" 

Technical 

Cannon, W. B. — Bodily Changes in Fear, Pain, Hunger, and 
Rage: 

Chap. XII, "The Energizing Influence of Emo- 
tional Excitement"; 

Chap. XV, "The Inter-Relations of Emotions" 
Crile, G. W. — Man, an Adaptive Mechanism: 

Chap. I, "Adaptation to Environment"; 

Chap. II, "The Nervous System"; 

Chap. Ill, "Adaptation by Means of Contact 
Ceptors"; 

Chap. IV, "Adaptation by Means of Chemical 
Ceptors and Chemical Activity"; 

Chap. XII, "Action Patterns; Consciousness and 
Sleep" 



56 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 

Chap. XII, "Development of Instincts — Various 

Resultant Instincts and Feelings"; 
Chap. XV, "Heredity" 

Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- 
haviorist: 

Chap. VII, "Hereditary Modes of Response: In- 
stinct"; 

Chap. VIII, "The Genesis and Retention of Ex- 
plicit Bodily Habits"; 

Chap. IX, "The Genesis and Retention of Explicit 
and Implicit Language Habits" 



14. FREEDOM AND DISCIPLINE 

In painful recognition of the fact that each human 
being must attain to a mastery over the natural impulses 
which interfere, when given free play, with his harmo- 
nious relation too thers, we have through generations of 
struggle developed the principle of discipline. It is 
indeed necessary that we learn to control ourselves — 
our actions, our speech, our feelings and our facial 
expressions. Otherwise there is no living together and 
human living means living together. 

Moreover, it is necessary for each to learn to do 
skilfully and cheerfully many things that do not come 
" naturally;" and it is often necessary to do what is 
positively disagreeable. 

For all these reasons "discipline" is resorted to. 
And discipline has meant the coercion of the body and 
soul, under penalty of fear and suffering, to the doing of 
what is needed until the habits shall have been estab- 
lished. 

The new psychology upon which rests the doctrine 
of "interest" or freedom in education does not deny 
that training and discipline are necessary. It ques- 
tions merely the permanent effectiveness or value of 
habits and attitudes acquired through coercion, as 
compared with those acquired through the exploitation 
of the child's spontaneous and cultivated interests. 

It is found that there is no necessary connection 
between suffering and virtue; that what is acquired 

57 



58 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

under duress is rejected at the first opportunity; that 
it is actually possible to get the desired self-control 
and skill and character through appeals to interest ; and 
finally that the child can learn to use freedom as an 
adult only through continuous and progressive experi- 
ence with freedom. 

OUTLINE 

1. THEORIES OF DISCIPLINE AND TRAINING 

a. Authoritative direction and obedience 

b. The burnt child — "Natural discipline" 

c. Learn to do by doing 

d. Development as self discovery 

2. SCIENTIFIC BASES 

a. Emotion and habit formation 

b. The purpose in relation to concentration and effort 

c. The interest as a unifying force 

d. Freedom vs. compulsion as affecting attitude 

e. Other disciplinary forces 

(1) Public opinion 

(2) Rewards and punishments 

3. EXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLS 

a. Methods used 

b. Results 

c. Comparisons with older types of schools 

(1) Scholarship 

(2) Conduct 

(3) Permanency of effect 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Abbott, E. H. — On the Training of Parents: 
Chap. Ill, "By Rule of Wit" 



FREEDOM AND DISCIPLINE 59 

Adler, Felix — The Punishment of Children 

Allen, Anna W. — Home, School, and Vacation: 116-159 

Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 
"Obedience," 97-168 

Gilman, Charlotte P. — Concerning Children: 

Chap. II, "The Effect of Minding on the Mind" 

Grtjenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and Tomorrow: 
Chap. II, "Problems of Punishment"; 
Chap. VI, "The First Great Law" 

Kilpatrick, William H. — Horace Mann Studies in Pri- 
mary Education: Teachers College Record, March, 
1919 
Project Method: Teachers College Record, October 
12, 1918 

Non-Technical 
Bagley, W. C. — The Educative Process: 

Chap. XIII, "Formal vs. Intrinsic Values of Ex- 
perience: The Doctrine of Formal Discipline" 

Dewey, John — Interest and Discipline 

Dewey, John and Evelyn — Schools of To-Morrow 

Griggs, E. H. — Moral Education: 

Chap. XIV, "The Progressive Application of De- 
mocracy in Home and School Government"; 

Chap. XV, "The Nature and Function of Correc- 
tive Discipline" 

James, William — Talks to Teachers: 
Chap. X, "Interest"; 
Chap. XI, "Attention" 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 

Chap. XI, "Development of Instincts — Regula- 
tive" 



60 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Norsworthy and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 
Chap. VI, "Attention" 

Sisson, E. O. — Essentials of Character: 63-74 

Technical 

Spencer, Herbert — Education: 

Chap. Ill, "Moral Education" 

Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 
Chap. VIII, "Under Law" 



15. CONSTRUCTING AND DESTROYING 

From the random, formless movements of infancy 
there gradually emerges organized activity that pro- 
duces concrete effects upon the objects of the child's 
environment. And many of these effects are of a 
kind that are injurious, if not to the child, at least to 
the objects. If these objects are of value, there is 
protest against the " destructiveness " of the child, 
although similar activities applied to worthless materials 
are tolerated as being in no way objectionable. From 
the child's viewpoint, however, these activities are to 
be considered on the one hand as merely explorations 
into the properties of the materials around him, and 
on the other hand, as explorations into his own powers 
over his environment. These destructive activities 
probably have other elements in their make-up, such 
as the satisfaction which the child finds in asserting 
himself, and in producing results that he feels are 
caused by himself. There is also the element of imita- 
tion, as in so much of the child's activities in general. 

The impulses leading to these destructive activities, 
instead of being repressed, need mainly guidance and 
development. With suitable play material and toys, 
the impulses find outlet and satisfaction; and gradually 
the activities come to be organized into "constructive" 
ones, involving higher and higher levels of interest, 
and more and more remote purposes. As an element 
in the child's intellectual education, the constructive 
work seems to be increasingly appreciated; and for 

61 



62 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

many children, a large amount of concrete experience, 
especially of the manipulative and constructive kind, 
is an essential basis for the formation of abstractions. 
Constructive experience, developed under suitable 
guidance, will not only replace random and destructive 
or indifferent activities but may serve in forming the 
proper attitudes and appreciations in relation to work- 
manship and skill, as well as in the formation of ideals 
of performance. 

OUTLINE 

1. ORIGINS AND MANIFESTATIONS 

a. Undifferentiated random movements 

(1) Exercise of sensations 

(2) Exercise of muscles 

b. Curiosity factor 

c. Imitation 

d. Satisfaction in producing results 

(1) Self-assertiveness 

(2) "Sadistic" impulse (pleasure in causing suf- 

fering) 

e. Inventiveness 

f. Sex differences 

2. DEVELOPMENT AND DIRECTION 

a. Toys 

b. Things to take apart 

c. Materials to work upon — paper, blocks, clay, sand, 

cloth, etc. 

d. Tools 

e. Art materials 

3. RELATION TO EDUCATION 

a. Value of hand work as part of daily routine 

(1) Release of tension 

(2) Acquirement of motor and emotional control 

b. Medium for discovering the work of the world 

c. Means for revealing special capacities and interests 

d. Basis of experience for abstract thinking 



CONSTRUCTING AND DESTROYING 63 

4. RELATION TO ATTITUDE 

a. Valuation of things in terms of what it takes to 

produce them 

b. Appreciation of skill and workmanship 

c. Development of satisfying means of self-expression 

d. Development of purposes to higher levels 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Forbush, W. B. — Manual of Play: 

Chap. XVI, "Constructive Play," 221-223; 
Bibliography on constructive plays, games, and oc- 
cupations, 337-343 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 183-191 

Johnson, George E. — Education by Plays and Games: 45, 
90, 98-99, 158-159 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 62, 
207-208, 265-268 

Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 

Chap. XV, "Construction," 127-128, 452-460 

Sies, A. C. — Spontaneous and Supervised Play in Childhood, 
Part II 

Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology; Briefer Course: 
62-63 

Non-Technical 
Dewey, John — School and Society: 31-33, 38 
Dewey, John and Evelyn — Schools of Tomorrow: 

Chap. IV, "Reorganizing the Curriculum"; 

Chap. X, "Education through Industry" 
Groos, Karl — The Play of Man: 97-101 
Marot, Helen — The Creative Impulse in Industry: 

Chap. I, "Production and Creative Effort"; 

Chap. IV, "Educational Industry and Associated 
Enterprises" 



64 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Educational Problems: 

Chap. VIII, "Vocational Education" 

Hall and Smith — Aspects of Child Life and Education: 
"Curiosity and Interest" (G. Stanley Hall), 84-141. 
(Reprinted from Pedagogical Seminary, X, 315- 
358, 1903.) 

Kent, Ernest B. — Constructive Interests of Children 



16. TOYS AND TOOLS 

It is just as natural to work as it is to play, and it is 
quite as necessary to play as it is to work. In the 
course of his development, the normal child does both ; 
and a considerable part of the problem of directing the 
child's development consists of building a bridge 
between play and work that will make both types of 
activity readily accessible at all stages. 

Tools and toys may be considered as the material 
instruments through which human beings express 
themselves and impress their environment. The tran- 
sition from the plaything to the work-thing is very 
elusive ; and it is of no importance whatever — except 
for the fact that in many cases the transition is never 
made. The prime function of the toy is related to the 
form which play takes at any given time. In infancy, 
when satisfaction is derived from simple sensations, 
the toys are things to see, to hear, to touch, to bite, 
and so on. Here, then, a spoon serves admirably, 
for it is a handful to grasp, shiny to catch the eye, 
hard enough to make a noise against the side of the 
crib, and small enough to put into the mouth. The 
child gets from such a "toy" an abundance of muscular 
and sensory exercise, it gives him something to do — 
and that is the essential of the toy as it is of the tool. 

Although work is sometimes distinguished from 
play in that the latter yields satisfaction through the 
activity itself, whereas the former yields satisfaction 

65 



66 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

through the result of the activity, the separation is 
not in fact so sharp. The child very early comes to be 
interested in the results of his activity. While he 
spends the first three years in merely getting acquainted 
with the world around him, a part of this acquaintance 
consists in knowing what changes can be produced on 
the materials at hand. So that although he may 
begin by touching and tasting, etc., he continues by 
breaking or tearing, crushing or bending. This means 
that he must get material for making. The arranging 
and rearranging of blocks or spools, the rolling or 
throwing of a ball, the blowing of a whistle, gradually 
give way to paper and shears and paste, to clay and 
crayon and needle. 

When the child's imagination begins to invest the 
objects around him with personality, or with traits 
remembered and transferred from other things, the 
toy is in the nature of a lay figure upon which he can 
hang garments suitable for all occasions. The doll 
then is merely a material symbol, and need not have 
the detail and finish that a more critical adult would 
demand. A stick will serve as a hobby horse, a box 
drawn by a string is enough of a wagon. 

When critical observation and command over the 
muscles have progressed far enough, the child's interest 
in things he wants and his interest in doing may be 
combined in the project of making his own toys. From 
this it is but a short step to work — that is, activity 
that is interesting not in itself but because of the results 
it yields. 

The precise form which work and play take will 
depend, in a given stage of development, upon the 



TOYS AND TOOLS 67 

materials and activities that characterize the sur- 
roundings. On a farm the child will have toy animals 
and will play at gardening or dairying; in the city he 
will have a toy fire engine and play at shopping or 
parades. 

The selection of toys must, therefore, be guided not 
only by the age of the child, but by the stimuli and 
suggestions that are likely to have meaning. And 
tools or work-things must, in the same way, be not 
only usable, but related to the things that the child will 
want to do. 

OUTLINE 

1. ACTIVITY ESSENTIAL TO GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 

a. Spontaneous or "play" activity 

b. Directed or "work" activity 

(1) Direction of activity by external compulsion 

(2) Direction by interest or acceptance 

2. GRADED INTERESTS AND CORRESPONDING PLAYTHINGS 

a. First Three Years 
Sensory experience 
Getting acquainted with the world 
Acquirement of control of larger muscles 

(1) Rattle, ball, ring 

(2) Striking, biting, whistle 

(3) Spools, clothespins 

(4) Pull by string 

(5) Fill and empty 

(6) Lift and carry 

(7) Dress and undress (doll) 

(8) Paper and paste 

(9) Blocks 
(10) Clay 



68 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

b. To Six Years 
Imitation 
Motion 
Rhythm 

(1) Dolls, animals 

(2) Household tools, to help in real work 

(3) Seesaw, swing, rocking-horse 

(4) Gocart, kiddy-car, hobby-horse, wheelbarrow 

(5) Cart, train, boat, fire engine, windmill 

(6) Sand, water, measuring 

(7) Making own toys, put together blocks, etc. 

(8) Hammer and nails 

(9) Toy furniture, tea set, kitchen set, play hostess 

(10) Weaving, raffia, beads, basketry, knitting 

(11) Crayon, paint, stencils 

C. To Ten Years (from activity for its own sake and con- 
trol of movements, to control of environment) 
Rivalry 

Sensitiveness to failure 
Collecting 
Constructing 

(1) Plants to grow; garden 

(2) Pets to care for; aquarium 

(3) Scouting; Indians; hunting 

(4) Policeman, letter-carrier, expressman, post- 

office 

(5) Robinhood; pioneers 

(6) Dramatization; costumes and material for 

making costumes; scenery, etc. 

(7) Bow and arrow, boxing, sled, skating 

(8) Athletic games 

(9) Doll 

d. Ten to Twelve Years 

Transition to adolescence 

Concrete results of activity desired — something to 

show for effort 
Recognition and approval 

(1) Elaboration of skills initiated in earlier period 

(2) Advance in handicrafts 

(3) Printing press, art materials, sewing, etc. 

(4) Substantial tools and working space 



TOYS AND TOOLS 69 

e. Thirteen to Fifteen Years 

Play of child becomes replaced by more systematic 
pursuit of hobby 

(1) Materials for experimentation 

(2) Tools and materials for constructive arts and 

crafts 

(3) Musical instruments 

(4) Athletic equipment 

3. CLASSIFICATION OF TOYS 

a. In Relation to Child's Activity 

(1) Do nothing 

(2) Look on 

(3) Do with 

b. As to Types of Activity 

(1) Sensory appeal 

(2) Manipulation 

(3) Construction 

(4) Operation 

(5) Imitation of activities of others; participation 

in service and activities 

(6) Games 

(7) Sports and athletics 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Beard, L. and A. — What a Girl Can Make and Do 

Fisher, Dorothy C. — A Montessori Mother: 

Chap. IV, "Something about the Apparatus and 
about the Theory Underlying It"; 

Chap. V, "Description of the Rest of the Apparatus 
and the Method for Writing and Reading"; 

Chap. VI, "Some General Remarks about the 
Montessori Apparatus in the American Home"; 

Chap. VII, "The Possibility of American Adapta- 
tions of, or Additions to, the Montessori Appa- 
ratus" 



70 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Hickman, E. A. — Soft Toys and How to Make Them 

Johnson, G. E. — Education by Plays and Games: 
Chap. II, "Play in Education" 

Sarg, Tony — The Tony Sarg Marionette Book 

White, Mary — The Child's Rainy Day Book 

Non-Technical 

Adams, Morley — Toy Making in the Home 

Johnson, G. F. — Toys and Toy Making 

Koch, Fritz — Paper Toys and How to Make Them 

Miller, Charles M. — Kitecraft 

Sies, A. C. — Spontaneous and Supervised Play in Childhood: 
Chap. II, "Play and Work" 

Technical 

Moore, H. W. — Manual Training Toys 

Polkinhorne, R. and M. — Toy Making in School and 
Home 

Sloane, Thomas 0. — Electric Toy Making for Amateurs 

Thatcher, E. — Making Tin-Can Toys 



17. LANGUAGE AND SPEECH DEVELOPMENT 

The infant responds to various stimuli that reach his 
senses through various meaningless jerks and contor- 
tions, and through cries and gurgles. These sounds, 
movements, and contortions gradually take on a 
definite form, influenced by the sounds and gestures 
that come to him and that he soon recognizes — that 
is, associates with certain feelings of pleasure, relief, 
excitation, and so on. By repeating the sounds, or as 
much of them as he can, he acquires " language." 

Since language, both as performance and as meaning, 
is so closely dependent upon the child's experience, it is 
wise to avoid the use of cunning mispronunciations 
and distortions of the language we wish the child to 
acquire; it is disconcerting and misleading to abuse 
the words by giving them specialized, arbitrary, or 
remote meanings. On the other hand, telling simple 
stories in words that the child can understand, and 
reading well written stories within the child's compre- 
hension, will go far to establish a useful vocabulary 
and to develop the concepts for which the words serve 
as symbols. 

The enrichment of the child's vocabulary and of his 
mental content constitute so much of the intellectual 
development of the child, that there should be constant 
linking up of his experience and his thought with his 
language. The language should not be forced, but 
should follow quickly upon experience; there should be 

71 



72 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

impression before expression, but expression should not 
be inhibited or unduly delayed. In teaching reading 
and writing the printed page or the process of making 
conventional marks must not be treated as the immedi- 
ate object of interest. It is more effective to arouse the 
child's curiosity as to the story which the strange 
marks have to tell, or his desire to tell others what he 
has on his mind. 

Most speech defects that are not the direct result of 
imitation are due either to defective breathing and 
vocalization, or to some structural irregularity. In the 
former case, the cause is frequently found to be in an 
emotional state brought on through fear or repression. 
In any case, experts should be consulted. 

OUTLINE 

1. GROWTH OF LANGUAGE IN INFANCY 

a. Earliest vocalizations inarticulate 

b. Random movements and gestures 

c. Recognition of words before attempted utterance 

d. From cries and single words to sentences in three years 

e. Language acquired through imitation; "Baby talk" 

2. TRAINING IN LANGUAGE 

a. Importance of correct pronunciation as model 

b. Vocabulary dependent on environment 

c. Reading aloud as source of language 

d. Value of having child repeat stories read or told 

3. GROWTH OF CONCEPTS 

a. Expansion of the content of words 

b. Dependence upon range of experience 

c. Extension of experience through pictures, reading, etc. 

d. Value of discussion in development of concepts 



LANGUAGE AND SPEECH DEVELOPMENT 73 

4. WRITTEN LANGUAGE 

a. Sound basis in spoken language 

b. Interest in message before interest in medium 

c. Pictures as language 

5. PROBLEMS IN LATER LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 

a. Experience before expression 

b. Content emphasized before form 

c. Spelling to be mastered early 

d. Grammar better studied later (after 12 years) 

6. speech defects; causes and treatment 

a. Stammering 

b. Stuttering 

c. Lisping 

d. Foreign and provincial accents 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Blanton, M. and S. — Speech Training for Children: 
Chap. I, "The Speech Medium"; 
Chap. II, "Speech Training and General Educa- 
tion"; 
Chap. Ill, "The Mechanisms of Speech"; 
Chap. IV, "The Coordinations"; 
Chap. V, "The Plastic Period"; 
Chap. VI, "The Developing Speech Needs"; 
Chap. VII, "Unhealthy Types of Speech Reaction" 

Montessori, Maria — The Montessori Method: 
Chap. XVIII, "Language in Childhood" 

Non-Technical 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 

Second Series, "How Words Get Content" 

Norsworthy and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 46- 
48, 251-257, 306-308 



74 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Sandiford, P. — The Mental and Physical Life of School 
Children: 
Chap. XIX, "Development of Language in Chil- 
dren" 

Waddle, C. W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 

Chap. VII, "The Linguistic Development of Chil- 
dren" 

Technical 

Coneadi, Edward — Speech Development in the Child: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XI, 328-380, 1904 

King, Irving — The Social Aspects of Mental Development: 
329-333, 345-351 

Trettien, A. W. — Psychology of the Language Interest of 
Children: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XI, 113-177, 1904 

Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- 
haviorist: 
Chap. IX, "The Genesis and Retention of Explicit 
and Implicit Language Habits " 



18. FOREIGN LANGUAGES 

Aside from the traditional overvaluation of foreign 
language as a mark of culture, or as an adjunct to leisure 
pursuits, there is a substantial worth in the mastery of 
such languages both for purposes of personal power and 
satisfaction, and for purposes of commercial or other 
vocational application. 

The acquisition of a foreign language during child- 
hood, along with the mother tongue, has been shown 
to carry certain disadvantages, such as the mixing of 
idioms, the impurity of accent, etc., as well as to have 
the theoretical disadvantages of obstructing complete 
mastery of the mother tongue. These disadvantages, 
which are to a degree dependent upon unsuitable 
teachers or improper methods, are nevertheless out- 
weighed by the advantage of greater facility of acquiring 
two or more languages by the "natural" method of 
imitation and use during the early years. The chief 
disadvantage of learning foreign languages through 
tutors or governesses at this time lies in the enforced 
separation of the child from his companions, both 
physically during the hours of instruction, and mentally 
through the reduction in the quantity of common 
experience and intercommunication. 

The systematic teaching of a foreign language to 
children who are already established in one language 
tends to follow as closely as possible the natural 
method, even in the higher grades and in the high 
schools. 

75 



76 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

OUTLINE 

1. DESIRABILITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE 

a. Broadens sympathies 

b. Makes accessible thought and life of other peoples 

c. Enhances vocational equipment 

(1) Commercial 

(2) Professional 

d. Enriches appreciation of own language 

2. ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGE EARLY 

a. Comes most easily as imitation; 

Two or three languages apparently learned as easily 
as one 

b. Child's tongue more flexible; 

Pronunciation becomes more difficult as child gets 
older 

3. DISADVANTAGES OF LEARNING EARLY 

a. Distracts time and energy from mother tongue 

b. Decreases sensitiveness to words and sentence struc- 

ture 

c. Leads to confusion of words and idioms 

d. Leaves traces of interfering thought forms 

e. Leaves traces of impure accents 

4. METHODS FOR OLDER CHILDREN 

a. Replacement of formal methods 

b. Ascendancy of direct methods 

c. Appeal to interest 

d. Use of hearing first, then sight 

e. Encouragement of pupil through more rapid acquisi- 

tion of usable fragments of language 

f. Available at all ages 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Berle, A. A. — The School in the Home: 23-49 
Henderson, C. Hanford — What Is It to be Educated? 

225-254, 348-355 
Mill, J. Stuart — Autobiography: 1-36 



FOREIGN LANGUAGES 77 

Non-Technical 

Ballard, A. W. — The Direct Method Applied to American 
Schools: 
Educational Review, LI, 447-456, May, 1916 

Calvin, T. — Good and Bad Reasons for Studying Modern 
Languages in School: 
The Modern Language Journal, V, October, 1920 

Handschin, C. H. — The Teaching of Modern Languages in 
the United States: 
United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1913, 
No. 3, 94-100 (Contains excellent bibliography 
for more detailed study) 

Kraus, C. A. — Why the Direct Method of Teaching a Foreign 
Language: 
Educational Review, LI, 254-267, 1916 

Laurie, S. S. — Lectures on Language and Linguistic Methods 

Starch, D. — Experimental Data on the Value of Studying 
Modern Languages: 
School Review, XXIII, 697-703, 1915 

Zick, H. — Teaching Modern Languages in European Sec- 
ondary Schools: 
Educational Review, LI, 488-510, 1916 

Technical 

Ellison, L. — Children's Capacity for Abstract Thought as 
Shown by Their Use of Language in the Definition 
of Abstract Terms: 
American Journal of Psychology, XIX, 253-260, 1908 

Hall, G. Stanley — Some Psychological Aspects of Teaching 
Modern Languages: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XXI, 256-263, 1914 



19. MANNERS 

No problem in child training better illustrates the 
difficulties arising from a separation of form and sub- 
stance, than does the teaching of manners. The out- 
ward conformity to conventionalized usage, or its 
absence, is obvious to all ; the feelings of considerateness 
or kindliness which these manners ostensibly manifest 
may or may not be present. 

Good manners are important just to the extent 
that they facilitate human intercourse, and reduce 
friction, misunderstanding and ill-feeling. They 
cease to be important when they degenerate into ex- 
pensive manifestations of class distinctions, or into 
symbols of social advantage or exclusiveness. In 
other words, manners are important as standard 
practice to enable people to carry on; they are worse 
than useless if they are worn as ornaments. 

If these assumptions are sound, the first considera- 
tion should be to cultivate in children kindly feelings, 
sympathy, considerateness, and regard for the rights 
and privileges and feelings of others. These results, 
however, are not to be accomplished merely, or even 
chiefly, by means of precepts or admonitions; they are 
the results primarily of the child's imitation of the acts 
manifesting such feelings, and of attitudes observable 
in the conduct of their surrounding elders. If we are 
not kind to those about us, including the child, no 
amount of exhortation to kindness will do the trick; no 

78 



MANNERS 79 

artificial smiles and courtesies will do it. In the worst 
of surroundings people will evolve some sort of manners, 
by precisely those methods which the race has used in 
the long course of time; we want our children to profit 
as far as may be from the accumulated experience of , 
the past, in manners as in other matters. We must 
therefore use all the legitimate educational devices for 
getting early and surely what would otherwise be 
uncertainly and incompletely accomplished in a lifetime. 

This involves, then, in the second place, in addition 
to the favorable environment which carries the outward 
and visible signs of an inward and spiritual grace, a 
varying amount of instruction in the way of occasion- 
ally calling to the child's attention what he might 
otherwise overlook or disregard. But the emphasis 
should be upon the inward meaning at least as much as 
upon the outward form; we do thus and so not because 
it is " considered proper," or because it is being done 
in "good society," but because thus do we help, or 
arouse good feeling, or avoid irritation, and so on. 

As in other teaching, results are proportional to the 
child's interest and good will, rather than to the 
amount of drill or the number and severity of penalties 
for failure. 

Much of the manners of each generation of children 
is produced outside the home and is beyond the control 
of parents. The pictures he sees, the conversation he 
overhears, his reading, his companions, casual com- 
ments, a glimpse of reality, all produce their effect. 
Moreover, it is to be expected that the symbolism of 
every generation will become to a degree meaningless 
to the next, and be replaced by new forms. In so far as 



SO OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

manners represent morals, we must demand only that 
our children's manners be genuine, and we must strive 
to make their morals sound, leaving room in our teach- 
ings for the new ways of a new day. 

OUTLINE 

1. ASPECTS OF MANNERS 

a. Conventional conduct 

b. Manifestation of civil relations 

c. Symbol of "good breeding" 

2. IMPORTANCE OF MANNERS 

a. Facilitate human intercourse — standard practice 

b. Reflect upon attitudes 

(1) Considerateness 

(2) Kindliness 

(3) Regard 

(4) Fairness 

c. Develop poise, ease of bearing 

3. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS 

a. Unconscious imitation 

b. Influence of approval or disapproval 

c. Pleasurable consequences — trial and error 

d. Conscious ideals 

e. Sex differences 

4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

a. Importance of living models 

(1) Conversation 

(2) Deference to elders and strangers 

(3) Treatment of help, tradesmen, functionaries, 

etc. 

(4) Treatment of equals and of children 

b. Incidental instruction and guidance 

c. Parties and games as occasions for practice 

d. Stories and other reading 

e. The theater and movies as school of manners 

f . The school's share in formation of manners 

g. Preserving spontaneity and genuineness of children 
h. Leaving room for change 



MANNERS 81 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Birney, Mrs. Theodore — Childhood: 
Chap. XIII, "On Manners" 

Emerson, Ralph W. — Essay on Behavior 

Grtjenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 285-288 

Hall, F. M. — Boys, Girls, Manners: 
Chap. II, "Hospitality" 

Henderson, C. H. — What is It to be Educated? 102-103, 
144-147 

James, W. — Talks to Teachers: 

Chap. IV, "Education and Behavior"; 
Chap. VI, "Native Reactions and Acquired Reac- 
tions" 

Lutes, D. T. — Child, Home, and School: Chap. XIII 

O'Shea, M. V. — Everyday Problems in Child Training: 
240-244 

Sneath and Hodges — Moral Training in School and Home: 
80-81 

Non-Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and 
Hygiene: 22, 312 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 

Chap. VIII, "The Development of the Racial In- 
stinct," 186-187 

Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 374-378 

O'Shea, M. V. — Social Development and Education: 136-143 



20. THE USE OF MONEY 

Money plays an important role in modern life. 
Children should have experience with it so that they 
may learn to handle it wisely. With the control of 
money goes responsibility for its proper use. Children 
may receive payment for rendering useful service, but 
not for doing personal favors, nor for meeting their 
recognized obligations. 

Allowances are neither favors nor payments; money 
is a necessary part of the child's daily adjustment, in 
the same way as is clothing or language. Allowances 
are furthermore allotments of the family income, as 
instruments of education in the use of money. 

The child should have experience in earning money 
as well as in spending it; and he should acquire a due 
appreciation of its significance and value in human 
relations, but the danger of making money-getting the 
main end of all effort must be guarded against. 

The child derives a certain satisfaction from giving, 
and generous impulses to aid others should be en- 
couraged. To give to charities in the name of the 
child gives him illegitimate satisfactions, since such 
giving involves no sacrifice on his part and no real 
sharing or participation. Children must learn the 
meaning of poverty and the more effective means for 
dealing therewith. 



82 



THE USE OF MONEY 83 

OUTLINE 

L LEAKNING THE VALUE OF MONEY 

a. The importance of money in modern life 

b. Child learns through experience and example 

c. Progressive experience through buying and spending 

Buying own clothes, etc. 

d. Learning cost of upkeep, etc. 

Keeping accounts, use of check book 

2. ALLOWANCES 

a. At what age? Amounts? 

b. Control of money received by child 

c. Deductions and fines for damage, negligence, etc. 

d. Should allowances be withheld as a means of disci- 

pline? 

3. EARNING MONEY 

a. Paying for home services 

b. What kind of work may be paid for? 

(1) Favors vs. purchasable services 

(2) Duties vs. purchasable services 

c. Opportunities for earning; business enterprise 

(1) Boys and girls 

(2) City and country 

d. Control of money earned 

e. Growth of family allegiance through cooperation in 

financial projects 

f. Money "making" necessary but not an end of life 

(See outline " Acquisitiveness" on the property 
sense) 

4. SAVING 

a. Saving not an end in itself 

(1) Inherent individual tendencies toward saving 

or spending 

(2) Training of interest in a remote objective 

b. Saving should be for specific purposes 

c. Teaching thrift principles and habits 

Money is nice to have — but what for? 



84 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

5. ALMSGIVING 

a. Children's interest expands to sympathy with others 

b. Children's experiences with the needs of others 

c. Charitable organizations and long-distance giving 

Dependent poor 

d. Giving and sharing 

6. IDEAL ATTITUDE 

Balanced appreciation of money as a means toward 
justifiable ends 



REFERENCES 

Popular 
Ewald, C. — My Little Boy: 43-51, 51-64 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 107, 310-318 

Non-Technical 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 

"Ought Children to be Paid for Domestic Ser- 
vice?" (B. Dismorr), Second Series, 62-70 
"Children's Sense of .Money" (Anna Kohler), First 
Series, 323-331 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Use of Money 

Technical 

Monroe, W. S. — The Money Sense of Children: 
Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 152-158 



21. ACQUISITIVENESS 

The child begins at about three years to gather to 
himself whatever he lays hands upon. Girls and boys 
early acquire the desire to enlarge their accumulation, 
and interest in gifts is largely related to this desire. 
Later they find that things are to be had as rewards of 
various kinds of merit. Still later they sally forth to 
get by whatever means is in their power, and in many 
cases the interest leads to more or less systematic 
barter, especially with boys; and not infrequently to 
stealing. 

There is no discrimination to begin with; gradually 
the collection becomes specialized under various 
influences — what there is to be had, the suggestions 
in the conversation or activities of elders, curiosity 
(especially concerning objects of nature), and senti- 
mental associations, such as souvenirs of parties, 
programs, posters, and so on. 

The interest in collecting is stimulated by the 
desire to enlarge in comparison with others (rivalry), 
by the approval and admiration that can be drawn 
forth, and by the satisfaction of attaining a high 
standard. On the subjective side, it is influenced by 
the satisfaction of overcoming various difficulties in 
the way of attaining the standard (prowess). The 
interests are likely to change as the child grows in 
esthetic discrimination, as he acquires new interests 
out of his reading or schooling or new acquaintances, 

85 



86 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

and as he becomes more exacting in systems and 
classifications. 

Although the child's collecting may end in a vain 
" hobby" or in a garretful of junk, it is capable of 
being guided into an instrument of genuine culture. 
The collecting interest gives for the time being a basis 
for unifying studies and other activities, leads to more 
concentration and greater exertion. Even the collec- 
tion of " useless" things furnishes opportunity for 
acquiring special knowledge, and at least an apprecia- 
tion of expertness and respect for authority founded on 
expertness. It leads to excursions into remoter corners 
of the world of people and things and ideas. 

The child should be encouraged to work his interest 
intensively; and the shifting to new interests with the 
advancing years should not be disparaged. The 
interests of the child manifested in his collecting should 
not be taken too seriously as indicating a natural 
" bent " or a special vocational capacity. In most cases 
it is likely to indicate merely a stage of development, 
or an incidental influence of the environment. Instead 
of seizing upon such an interest that happens to appeal 
to elders as the final index of a future career, we should 
deplore rather an early settling down to a specialty 
while there is the possibility for advance to a higher 
level. 

Collecting, unguided and uncontrolled, has its 
dangers. Pursued too intently it leads to loss of per- 
spective, and even to ruthlessness, as in the collecting 
of birds' nests, or in the collecting of "souvenirs" by 
college boys and girls. It may lead to the accumula- 
tion of worthless junk, and to the withholding from use 



ACQUISITIVENESS 87 

by others of materials that might be useful. Old 
clothes, magazines, and books are junk in one house; in 
another they might be truly useful and might better be 
put to work wherever possible. But we also dislike to 
throw away broken bric-a-brac and old furniture and 
old letters that are of no earthly use to anyone. There 
is the further danger of establishing false standards of 
value through the artificial emphasis upon rarities; 
snobbishness and pedantry and specious reputability 
feed upon the "pretentious rubbish" of the collector. 
Whether as an avocation to supplement and enrich the 
everyday activities, or as the chief interest in life, 
collecting in some form or other serves to give color and 
intensity to the later years. 

The things the child acquires, whether in the early 
unconscious stage, or in the later deliberate, purposeful 
and systematic stage, are valued as expansions of the 
personality; and property has its true significance 
just in so far as it adds to spiritual stature. There is 
thus grave danger in the development of property 
interests on lower levels. Children should be en- 
couraged to explore, to concentrate, and to clear the 
deck for what has been selected as worth while. But 
always explore further, and clear away what has been 
rejected, or what is unused. Try out everything, but 
not all at one time. The unused and the duplicate 
should make way for what is of relatively lasting 
interest. The collection may be the nucleus of a 
museum or of a competence; it may also be the begin- 
ning of a barbarous junk heap, or of miserliness. 

The child's attitude toward the property of others 
is a gradual development from his exclusive and 



88 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

jealous interest in his own. It is possible in the early- 
years to teach a child to consider the rights of others, 
and certainly to refrain from abusing other people's 
belongings. Later he can transfer to other people the 
feelings he has about his own things, and eventually 
come to regard the "rights" of property in the abstract, 
not as distinguished from the rights of people, but as 
a phase of human rights. 

OUTLINE 

1. NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT 

a. Tendency to gather indiscriminately begins at about 

three years 

b. As pronounced in girls as in boys; may take different 

forms 

c. Gradually specialized under external influences 

(1) Nature of available objects 

(2) Fashions — imitation and suggestion 

(3) Curiosity 

(4) Sentiment 

d. Stimulated by rivalry 

(1) Admiration and approval 

(2) Desire to achieve; exploit 

e. Modified by development of esthetic discrimination 

or taste, and of intellectual powers 

(1) Development of interest in system 

(2) Changing interests and sentiments 

2. FORMS 

a. Sources 

(1) Begins with random gathering in of miscellane- 

ous articles 

(2) Grows with reliance upon gifts 

(3) Shifts to seeking rewards of "merit" 

(4) Becomes desire to get as result of exertion 

(5) Usually ends in pursuit, in form of trade or 

barter 



ACQUISITIVENESS 89 

b. Incidence 

(1) Odds and ends 

(2) Bits of colored material — ribbons, glass, stone 

(3) Pictures, coins, stamps 

(4) Nature objects — insects, minerals, feathers, 

flowers 

(5) Books, autographs, portraits, historic me- 

mentoes 

(6) Trophies, souvenirs 

(7) Rarities, antiques, objects of vertu, the unique 

(8) An element in "business interest" 

3. BENEFITS 

a. Develops unifying interests and purposes, leading to 

concentration of effort 

b. Gives stimulus to planning and exertion 

c. Develops special knowledge, relative expertness and 

discrimination, ideas of order and classification 

d. Leads to wider exploration into world of people and 

things 

e. Furnishes basis of consideration for the property 

rights of others 

f. Furnishes suggestions for later hobbies — "nature's 

antidote against future boredom" 

4. DANGERS 

a. Loss of perspective through overemphasis 

b. Ruthlessness through overintensity 

c. Accumulation of useless junk 

d. Relegation to idleness of useful objects and materials 

e. Forcing of artificial interests and values, development 

of exclusiveness, snobbishness, or pedantry on 
basis of the "pretentious rubbish" 

f. Enthusiast may become a bore 

I. CONTROL 

a. Explore ; the child should be encouraged to search for 

new fields 

b. Concentrate; the child should be encouraged to work 

his immediate interest as intensively as possible, 
with regard to time and energy and other de- 
mands 



90 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

c. Advance; do not attach too much significance to the 

material or the form of the collection at any- 
given time 

d. Clear the deck; the child should be constantly en- 

couraged to get rid as completely as may be of the 
objects he is no longer "collecting" and of the 
"duplicates" he has — both to make room for new 
things, and to avoid idleness of the "useful" 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 104-107 
Hubbell, L. E. — The Child and His Room: 

The House Beautiful, XLVII, 358-362, April, 1920 
Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 289-293 
Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology; Briefer Course: 20 

Non-Technical 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 

"Children's Collections" (Earl Barnes), First Series, 

144-146 
"Children's Plays" (Genevra Sisson), First Series, 
171-174 
Darwin, Charles — Life and Letters: I, 28, 31, 37, 38, 43 
Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 205-207 
Norsworthy and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 

52-54, 299 
Waddle, C. W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 216-218 

Technical 

Hall and Smith — Aspects of Child Life and Education: 
"The Collecting Instinct" (Caroline Frear Burk), 
205-240 (Reprinted from Pedagogical Seminary, 
VII, 179-207, 1900) 



ACQUISITIVENESS 91 

"The Psychology of Ownership" (France and 
Kline), 241-286 (Reprinted from Pedagogical 
Seminary, VI, 421-470, 1899) 

King, Irving — Psychology of Child Development: 179-180 

Wiltse and Hall — Children's Collections: 

Pedagogical Seminary, I, 234-237, 1893 



22. INITIATIVE AND SPONTANEITY 

In the infant we may observe many movements 
that are apparently set off by some external stimulus, 
and others that seem to arise from something happening 
within the child. While in a strict sense we cannot 
conceive of activities being spontaneous, we may dis- 
tinguish from the random and impulsive movements 
those that appear to be related to the child's interests. 
Where there is an element of choice, of prolonged 
attention, of absorption to the disregard of stimulations 
that would ordinarily elicit a response, we have an 
indication of something related to the individuality of 
the child. Early in his development, however, there 
begin to operate influences that restrict these spon- 
taneous actions and interests, and interfere with them 
in various ways. 

The child is obliged to confine himself to lines of 
conduct that are either approved or ignored by the 
more powerful personalities of his environment. Some 
of the things he is inclined to do are solemnly con- 
demned as " wrong," or are arbitrarily forbidden. 
"Don't" comes to be the most familiar imperative; and 
to the child the distinctions between what is permitted 
or tolerated and what is forbidden, are very vague and 
meaningless. 

Yet it is quite necessary that the primitive freedom 
of the child should be restrained. Nothing in the 
nature of the organisms insures that the spontaneous 

92 



INITIATIVE AND SPONTANEITY 93 

movements shall be at worst harmless. There is con- 
stant danger of coming in conflict with the solid realities 
and injurious forces of the surroundings. There are 
stairs that permit painful falls, there are hot points 
and surfaces that burn, there are things small enough to 
put into the mouth but better kept out. Moreover, 
there are other people, who will either receive considera- 
tion or cause trouble. And finally, there are complex 
relations between human beings that demand the 
complete repression of many kinds of actions that are in 
themselves neither good nor bad. All of these facts 
impose the necessity for the elimination of certain types 
of interests and activities; and the child must attain to 
an adjustment to these facts whether he retains any 
spontaneity or not. Unfortunately, for most people 
there is retained only an insignificant area of free action, 
or one that interferes substantially with their happy 
relation to others. 

It is possible to attain to social adjustment and at 
the same time to retain a considerable amount of intel- 
lectual and spiritual independence. There should be 
provided for the child, from the earliest days, an ample 
and a growing opportunity for spontaneous activity 
in surroundings that are not only safe, but stimulating. 
A great variety of material for playing and for making, 
such as is so elaborately systematized in the kinder- 
garten, or in the Montessori school, furnishes this 
opportunity. A wide range, with freedom of choice, 
encouragement in the simple efforts, the example of 
older people trying to make things, to make up a song, 
to tell a story, to draw a picture, furnish for the young 
child the stimulus and at the same time the control for 



94 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

spontaneity and initiative. As the child grows older 
he becomes aware of the relative values placed by his 
contemporaries upon strict compliance with the con- 
ventional, as against the inventive and original. The 
child will need help in solving problems, in selecting 
problems; he will need guidance to avoid serious blunders 
or damage. But unnecessary restraints should never 
be imposed on the theory that they have some magical 
" disciplinary " value; nor should assistance extend to 
the point of making him lean too heavily upon others. 
Not every child is a genius, but every normal child 
should have the opportunity to make the most of 
himself, especially on the side of his distinctive qualities. 
This means that we must cultivate ideals that make for 
an honest experimental attitude, as against the lazy 
acceptance of convenient finalities, that make for 
courageous and aggressive facing of problems and of 
one's own thoughts, as against the complacent accept- 
ance of current but meaningless formulas. Beginning 
with the shapeless movements that are satisfying in 
themselves, we must seek to help the child develop well 
organized, systematic schemes of action that fit into a 
world of concrete realities, and that are under the guid- 
ance not of whim or blind impulse, or of conventional 
routine, but of reasoned principle. 

OUTLINE 
1. SOUECES OF ACTION 

a. Movements forced in response to stimuli 

b. "Spontaneous" action distinguished from random or 

impulsive 

c. Acquired modes of response to familiar or conven- 

tional suggestion 



INITIATIVE AND SPONTANEITY 95 

2. FREEDOM AND COERCION 

a. Exposure to repressive influences 

(1) Intimidation 

(2) Disapprobation 

b. Artificial and arbitrary criteria 

c. Conventionalized inertia 

3. CONTROLLED SPONTANEITY 

a. Limitations on freedom 

(1) The environment of matter and force 

(2) The human restrictions 

(3) Social needs 

b. Achievement of control 

4. TRAINING FOR INITIATIVE 

a. Opportunity for self-expression 

b. Encouragement 

c. Stimulating example 

d. Avoidance of too much help 

e. Avoidance of arbitrary restraints 

5. IDEAL AIMS 

a. Experimental attitude 

b. Courage to think through 

c. Respect for objective reality 

d. Direction by rational considerations 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Clapp, Henry Lincoln — The Development of Spontaneity, 
Initiative, and Responsibility in School Children: 
Education, XLI, 209-221, December, 1920 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 151-159 

Thorndike, E. L. — Education for Initiative and Originality: 
Teachers' College Record, XVIII 



96 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Non-Technical 

Dewey, John and Evelyn — Schools of Tomorrow: 
Chap. VI, "Freedom and Individuality" 

Hughes, James L. — FroebeVs Educational Laws: 154-178, 
222-247 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 310- 
323 

Thorndike, E. L. — Individuality 

Technical 

Richards, Albertina A. — Motive in Education: 

Pedagogical Seminary, XXVIII, 60-72, 1921 



23. AMBITIONS AND IDEALS 

From unconsciously reaching out toward the objects 
that catch his attention, and from unconsciously 
imitating the actions and expressions of the people he 
sees, the child gradually comes to be aware of wanting 
things that are not present to his senses, and of wanting 
to be like, or to do like, persons he does not see. When 
the imagination has developed to a certain point, it 
combines elements of past experience in new ways ; and 
any such combination that appeals to the child as 
worthy of realization, becomes an "ideal." 

The personal ideals are thus constructed out of 
observed models, to begin with. To be like father or 
like mother, to have the power or the things that grown 
folks have, to do what the mighty and admired men and 
women of the limited environment — these become 
objects of the heart's desire. 

Ideals are progressive just because (and just to the 
extent that) experience and ideas grow. The early 
models that the child adopts are expanded and refined 
through the influence of stories heard, pictures seen, 
books read, personalities felt, through the witnessing 
of drama upon the stage and in real life. 

From a desire to secure pleasure or satisfaction for 
himself, the child passes to an attitude toward his 
group — he seeks both the recognition or admiration of 
others and the opportunity to serve others. From the 
hero as embodiment of envied or admired virtues, 

97 



98 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

serving as an extraneous model, the ideal is assimilated 
until the child comes to impersonate his hero and to 
play the role as well as he can. In the end the attributes 
of this ideal person become abstracted as principles or 
rules of conduct. With each successive ideal or 
ambition, the child may be guided into establishing 
habits of conduct or of attitude that correspond to the 
outstanding virtues of the ideal and of the period. 

It is necessary to give the child not only an ever 
growing opportunity to acquire new ideals, but also 
ever}'- encouragement to put the present ideals into 
practice. Otherwise there is no means for determining 
relative values of ideals, or their practicability. We 
must guard on the one hand against disparaging untried 
ideals, with the danger of cynicism or indifference to all 
idealism; and on the other hand, against approving a 
vague reverence for untried ideals, with the correspond- 
ing danger of sentimentalism. 

Since the ideals expand with the child's acquaintance 
in the world of human conduct and relations, attention 
should be directed to the companions, literature, and 
amusements, that furnish him so much of his incidental 
information. The school, the church, the theater, the 
current magazines and newspapers contribute more 
or less systematically to the ideals of the rising genera- 
tion. 

Almost from the earliest years the child needs help 
in formulating his ideals and purposes. This aid comes 
largely in the form of precepts and proverbs, epigrams 
and aphorisms. But we should neither depend too 
much upon them as effective guides to the child's 
decisions in conduct; nor commend them too pointedly 



AMBITIONS AND IDEALS 99 

as valid guides. As the child grows older the oppor- 
tunity to clear up his own thoughts and feelings through 
discussions with companions and with more mature 
persons can be of decided help. 

At every stage the child should be encouraged to live 
up to his ideal even at a sacrifice, for it is better to 
hold fast and fail, than to weaken and gain through a 
mischance. 

OUTLINE 

1. NATURE AND SOURCES 

a. Conscious imagining of desires 

b. Progressively modified during growth 

c. Influenced by experience and suggestion 

2. DEVELOPMENT 

a. Desire for objects — things that yield pleasure 

b. Imitation of heroes 

c. Eagerness to excel (rivalry) 

d. Abstract principles of conduct 

3. USES 

a. Furnish stimulus to effort 

b. Offer opportunity for inculcating desirable habits 

c. Serve as nucleus for unifying interests, studies, etc. 

d. Make possible development of a compelling purpose 

e. Determine choice of career and of level of conduct 

4. DANGERS 

a. Indulgence in fantasy and day-dreaming, as escape 

from reality and responsibility 

b. Over-reaching to the impossible, ending in sentimen- 

talism 

c. Fixation at low level of satisfaction 

d. Loss of faith in ideals 



100 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

5. GUIDANCE AND CONTROL 

a. Example of surrounding personalities in home 

b. Companions 

c. Literature; biography 

d. Stimulation and inspiration of school, church, theater, 

etc. 

e. Opportunity for graded objective experience 

f. Aid in formulating purposes 

g. Encouragement to hold fast 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Barnes, Earl — Children's Ideals: 

Pedagogical Seminary, VII, 3-12, 1900 

Studies in Education: 

"Children's Ambitions" (Hattie Mason Willard), 

Second Series, 243-253 

Bateman, W. G. — The Ideals of Some Western Children: 
Educational Review, LI, 21-39 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
Chap. XI, "Children's Ideals and Ambitions" 
Sons and Daughters: 
"The Passing Ideal," 71-74; 
"The Dabbling Adolescent," 75-78 

Non-Technical 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 

"Type Study in Ideals" (Earl Barnes), Second 
Series, 37-40, 78-80, 115-120, 157-160, 198-200, 
237-240, 277-280, 319-320, 359-360 

Bateman, W. G. — Some Western Ideals in the High School: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XXIII, 570-584, 1916 

Tanner, A. E. — Adler's Theory of Minderwertigkeit: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XXII, 204-217, 1915 



AMBITIONS AND IDEALS 101 

Technical 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 

"Negative Ideals" (Henry H. Goddard), Second 
Series, 392-398 

Chambers — W. G. — The Evolution of Ideals: 

Pedagogical Seminary, X, 101-143, 1903 

Hill, D. S. — Comparative Study of Children's Ideals: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XVIII, 219-231, 1911 



24. RIVALRY AND COMPETITION 

We are all rather completely immersed in competi- 
tive pursuits. As a result, most of us are likely to take 
the feelings of rivalry and the corresponding modes of 
conduct for granted as natural. Moreover, most of us 
are likely to justify these feelings and conduct as right 
or necessary despite the obvious damage from the 
scheme of relationships which habitual competition 
involves. 

What lies back of the competitive mode of behavior 
is probably not a simple instinct or trait of " human 
nature," but a specialized form of the desire for being 
noticed, influenced by the imitation of what is going on 
around us. The child begins very early to imitate 
movements, sounds, facial expressions, gestures that 
he observes; sooner or later he discovers that the 
various tricks which at first yielded satisfaction in 
themselves, or through the attention they drew upon 
him, cease to satisfy; and the only way he has of getting 
attention is to do what others are doing, but to a 
degree that is superlative. This rivalry is analogous 
to the strutting of the male birds or the coy preenings 
of the female ; these performances stimulate the animals 
to further efforts in the same direction, and give the 
appearance of "competition." 

The value of rivalry for the developing child lies in 
bringing to his attention, and stimulating his efforts 
for, a variety of activities, and so in acquainting him 

102 



RIVALRY AND COMPETITION 103 

with the degrees to which he may hope to master the 
different kinds of activity. His successes, in addition 
to the skill derived from the effort and practice, con- 
tribute to his self-esteem; his failures ought at least to 
contribute to his respect for others. 

There are dangers, however, in too insistent an 
emphasis upon the importance of attaining the extreme 
of achievement, or of excelling. After all, we cannot 
excel in everything; and most of us cannot excel in 
anything. To make the child value too highly the 
winning in every competition or contest, instead of 
the game, is not only to destroy his sportsmanship, but 
to lay the foundations for more or less serious inferiority 
complexes. These hurt the child by destroying his self- 
esteem, by driving him to socially undesirable modes of 
self-assertion, and by making him rationalize his own 
status through disparaging the achievement of others. 
This makes for envy, discontent, and hostility to the 
group. 

There are of course corresponding dangers to the 
conceit and self-sufficiency of the child who does early 
excel in the few things he has attempted, and who 
is shrewd enough to avoid competition in doubtful 
directions. 

The development of the child's personality through 
experience in competitive efforts should be directed 
toward the discovery of satisfactions in group activities 
that teach loyalty, cooperation and sacrifice toward 
satisfaction involving not the individual's distinction 
but the team's, or school's, or club's distinction, and 
to that extent an enlargement of the child's capacity 
to serve and to identify himself with the common 



104 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

interest. His personality should grow through his 
identification of himself with progressively larger 
groups. The interest should further be directed toward 
the discovery of values, the pursuit of which will yield 
satisfaction without involving loss or injury to others, 
and which will at the same time make the self-assertion 
distinctive and fruitful of the kind of recognition that is 
desired. 

The child needs opportunities for discovering as 
much as possible of what is worth doing, of his own 
capacities and limitations, and of what distinctive 
combinations of effort will yield the greatest value. 

OUTLINE 

1. THE NATURE OF RIVALRY 

a. Comparison with lower animals 

b. Source in self-assertiveness or desire for recognition 

c. Conditioned by imitativeness 

2. THE VALUE OF COMPETITIVE ACTIVITIES 

a. The discovery of what kinds of activities there are 

b. The discovery of own abilities and limitations 

c. Stimulation to maximum effort 

d. Respect for achievement of others 

e. Development of group loyalties 

3. THE DANGERS IN OVEREMPHASIS ON EXCELLING 

a. To the winners 

(1) Complacency and conceit 

(2) Contempt for divergent types of achievement 

(3) Lack of sympathy for others 

b. To the losers 

(1) Inferiority complexes 

(2) Disparagement of conventional values 

(3) Envy and discontent 

(4) Hostility toward the group 



RIVALRY AND COMPETITION 105 

c. To both winners and losers 

(1) Distorted scale of values 

(2) Arrest of development 

THE NEEDS OF THE CHILD 

a. Opportunity to discover own potentialities and limita- 

tions 

b. Opportunity for getting approval and recognition in 

worthy achievement, whether in work, study, or 
play 

c. Opportunity to transfer the competitive interest 

(1) From himself to the group 

(2) From childish and cheap or conventional aims 

to selected and distinctive aims 



REFERENCES 
Popular 

Drummond, W. B. — An Introduction to Child Study: 170, 
220-221 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 144-147 

Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 

Chap. XXIV, "Big Injun," 328-331 

Non-Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and 
Hygiene: 83-86 

Norsworthy and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 68- 
70, 208-209, 219-297 

Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 65, 326 

Technical 

Wood worth, R. S. — Dynamic Psychology: 165-166, 489, 
543 



25. CLUBS AND GANGS 

The undifferentiated gregariousness which, in the 
young child, finds comfort in the mere presence of 
others, gradually gives way to a more discriminating 
segregation of the like-minded. The boys and girls 
will flock by themselves; and soon a number of boys 
cling together sufficiently to constitute a gang. They 
are apparently held together about as much by their 
aversion to other folks, especially older folks, as by 
what they find interesting in one another. The 
groupings of girls are not, as a rule, either so large, so 
coherent, or so persistent as are those of boys. Girls 
seem to be more easily satisfied with closer and more 
restricted intimacies. 

The activities of these groups vary from communal 
dawdling to the most ambitious projecting of andprepa- 
ration for grand adventures on land and sea. For the 
most part, however, they consist of playing games, 
fighting other gangs, hunting or fishing, robbing 
orchards, annoying unpopular neighbors, and holding 
secret meetings in the role of pirates or highwaymen. 
Occasionally these gangs persist, especially in the 
larger cities, in the form of athletic or social clubs. 

As in most of the spontaneous manifestations of 
children's impulses, these groupings and activities 
have in them both dangers and potentialities of great 
social and personal value. The great danger lies in the 
fact that leadership is random, that the community 

106 



CLUBS AND GANGS 107 

too easily antagonizes the group and its members, and 
that no provision appears for the stimulation of the 
further development of the gang's virtues. The 
possibilities for making valuable contributions to the 
development of its members and to the community as 
a whole, appear from the very characteristics that dis- 
tinguish the "bad" gang — extreme loyalty, readiness 
for self-sacrifice, and the spirit of cooperation and 
fidelity. These are all forces making for a high degree 
of solidarity. If this solidarity is enabled to expand 
to the larger community, the result is in every respect 
desirable. 

A recognition of the possibilities latent in the gang 
conspired with other forces about 1910, resulted in 
systematic efforts to organize and standardize gang 
interests, gang activities, and gang virtues into the 
"Boy Scouts" and kindred organizations. Similar 
experiments in large numbers were made on a small 
scale in this country and various European countries 
twenty or more years earlier. The Boy Scout move- 
ment started at a time when all the conditions were 
favorable, and when a few leaders of ability and imagi- 
nation were available. Although boys do not, as a rule, 
accept as readily as do girls direction of their gangs 
from without, these large organizations have operated 
in a manner that removes the appearance of external 
direction, and that provides all the conditions favorable 
to the stimulation of the very best of the social impulses 
of youth. 



108 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

OUTLINE 

1. THE INTEGRATION OF GANGS 

a. Spontaneous aggregation 

b. Separation from outsiders 

c. Development of common group interests 

d. Appearance of leadership 

e. Sex differences 

2. THE ACTIVITIES 

(More distinctive with boys) 

a. Hunting, fishing, etc. 

b. Quest of adventure 

c. Tribal occupations 

d. Fighting other gangs 

e. Athletics and games 

3. EFFECTS OF THE GANG 

a. The gang virtues, tribal virtues 

(1) "Be loyal to friend, be liar to enemy" 

(2) Obedience to law (of the gang) 

(3) Self-sacrifice 

(4) Cooperation 

(5) Solidarity 

b. The dangers 

(1) Anti-social fixation 

(2) Dissipation and failure to mature 

(3) Misdirection through vicious leadership 

c. The possibilities 

(1) Discipline of the individual 

(2) Development of social consciousness 

(3) Adjustment of personality to others 

4. DIRECTION AND GUIDANCE 

a. Help in organization 

b. Legitimization 

c. Provision of meeting place 

d. Standardization of pursuits and procedure 

e. Formulation of ideals 

f. Educational possibilities in Boy Scout and kindred 

movements 

g. Utilization for systematic education 

h. Possibilities for mixed clubs (boys and girls) 



CLUBS AND GANGS 109 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Curtis, H. S. — The Boy Scouts: 

Educational Review, L, 495-508, 1915 
Forbush, W. B. — The Boy Problem: 

Chap. Ill, "Ways in Which Boys Spontaneously 

Organize Socially"; 
Chap. IV, "Social Organizations Formed for Boys 
by Adults" 
The Coming Generation: 
Chap. VI, "How a Child Does His Thinking," 
81-84, 346-353 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 57, 293-296 
Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
Chap. X, "Children's Gangs, Clubs, and Friend- 
ships" 
Kirtley, J. S. — That Boy of Yours: 
Chap. XIV, "His Gang"; 
Chap XV, "His Chums"; 
Chap. XXII, "Organizing Boys" 
Puffer, J. A. — The Boy and His Gang: 

Chap. II, "The General Nature of the Gang"; 
Chap. VI, "The Anthropology and Psychology of 

the Gang"; 
Chap. XI, "The Special Virtues of the Gang"; 
Chap. XII, "The Gang in Constructive Social 
Work" 

Non-Technical 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 54, 

118-120 
Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 

Chap. XXXIX, "Play and Drudgery"; 

Chap. XL, "The Land of the Leal"; 

Chap. XLI, "The Gang Standard" 



110 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Sheldon, H. D. — The Institutional Activities of American 
Children: 
American Journal of Psychology, IX, 425-448, 1898 

Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: II, 396-404, 412-418, 
428-430 

Hartson, L. D. — The Psychology of the Club: 

Pedagogical Seminary, XVIII, 353-414, 1911 

Pamphlets 

Boy Scouts of America 

Scouting for Boys 

What Scouts Do 

The Manual of the Campfire Girls 

The Woodcraft Manual for Boys 

The Woodcraft Manual for Girls 



26. FIGHTING 

The most prominent emotional accompaniment of 
fighting is anger, which is the feeling aroused primarily 
by the restraint of action, and later by the frustration 
of impulses by some discoverable agent. Thus we are 
angry at the man who gets in our way as we are hurrying 
to catch a train, but only a childish mind will feel anger 
toward a storm that interferes with his plans. The 
so-called fighting instinct is rather a complex of many 
impulses. The hitting back element is obvious enough, 
but does not account for the initiation of fighting. 
There is present, in degrees varying with individuals as 
well as with sex, the desire to inflict pain as seen in 
bullying and teasing, or to receive pain (the masochistic 
impulse) as seen also in a certain form of teasing, which 
seems to be an invitation to "punishment." Both of 
these may be special forms of self-assertiveness, or 
unconscious search for attention or recognition. But 
neither bullying nor teasing is perhaps altogether a 
simple matter. There is present in fighting a relic of 
feelings that point back, so to say, to the satisfaction 
of the hunt and chase. And finally there is an element 
suggestive of rivalry combat. This shows itself 
strikingly in the fighting spirit aroused during later 
adolescence, when the appearance of a second male 
converts the good company of the female into an 
extremely irritating situation for the first one. 

The defensive and offensive activities constituting 

111 



112 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

fight, have biological meaning in so far as they serve as 
adaptive means for protection against inimical factors 
of the environment and for the conquest of prey for 
food, etc. 

On the social plane fighting has been of value in the 
conflicts of groups, tribes, nations, and so on; but is 
probably to-day, in civilized man, a vestige fraught 
with dangers if allowed to take its course undirected. 

In the development of the child there are dangers 
connected in the first place with the direct injuries 
resulting from the use of force out of proportion to his 
judgment and control (the risk of serious physical injury 
increasing with age). In the second place there are 
dangers connected with the establishment of attitudes 
or values on relatively low stages of personal or social 
evolution. 

In the child's training it is therefore necessary in 
the first place to allow frank fighting with children of 
his own size, in order that the emotions leading to the 
activities may not be repressed and turned into brooding 
hatred and vindictiveness. It is good psychology to 
let the child "work off" his anger, or "get it out of his 
system." On the other hand, bullying and teasing 
should be discouraged; although the most effective 
discouragement is likely to come from a thorough-going 
thrashing administered by a worm that has turned, or 
by some other child. Later substitutes can be found 
in wrestling and boxing and in organized athletic con- 
tests in which the fight elements are more or less con- 
ventionalized. Apart from the psychological effects 
upon the circulation and glands, these contests have the 
further advantage of training the child for deliberate 



FIGHTING 113 

and calculating action while under stress, a very 
important means of attaining to control of temper and 
moods. 

Alongside of the training for control should proceed 
the training that transfers the anger reaction from the 
personal and physical restraints to the social and ideal 
frustrations. This is, of course, a part of that training 
which on the one hand enlarges the individual's con- 
sciousness of "self" to include his family, school, com- 
munity, nation, race — and on the other hand projects 
his sensitiveness to injury from his own skin to the 
vaguer but no less real concepts of "fair play," "honor," 
"justice," etc. 

The fighting "instinct" may thus be preserved while 
it is being guided to function on progressively higher 
stages of human worth. Instead of becoming a bully 
or a pugilist there is the possibility of becoming a 
knight perpetually combating disease, or corruption, or 
poverty, or injustice, or ignorance — or war; and with 
the growth of knowledge and power and self-confidence 
the negative and antagonistic forces may eventually 
become the drive for positive and constructive efforts. 



OUTLINE 



COMPOSITION 

a. Anger 

b. Self-assertiveness 

(1) Bullying 

(2) Teasing 

c. Chase and flight 

d. Rivalry-combat 



114 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

2. USES 

a. Biological 

b. Social 

3. DANGERS 

a. Disproportionate effects 

b. Fixations 

4. TRAINING 

a. Fighting as discipline 

b. Sublimation to higher levels 

REFERENCES 
Popular 

Abbott, E. H. — On the Training of Parents: 

Chap. V, "For "lis Their Nature To" 

Dickinson, G. A. — Your Boy: 13, 83-88 

Forbush, W. B. — The Coming Generation: 6-12 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 127-130 

Non-Technical 

Bogardus, E. S. — Essentials of Social Psychology: 68-71, 
221-236 

James, William — The Moral Equivalent of War: 

International Conciliation, No. 27, February, 1910 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 104-106 

Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 

Chap. XXV, "The Fighting Instinct" 

McDougall, W. — Social Psychology: 

Chap. XI, "Instinct of Pugnacity" 

Norsworthy and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 54-, 
57, 89-91 



FIGHTING 115 

Puffer, J. A. — The Boy and His Gang: 65-71, 88-93 
Swift, E. J. — Mind in the Making: 37-40 
Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 322-324 

Technical 
Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: I, 353-357 



27. PLAY 

That type of puritanism that considers play a device 
of the devil to mislead the children of man is perhaps 
not more ancient than the insight which observes the 
dulling effect of the repression of play impulses. How- 
ever annoying the shouts of children at play may be 
to a nervous adult trying to nap while the sun is 
shining, however it may irritate us to see the children 
prefer their foolish games to the very precious lessons 
we seek to impress upon them, it remains true that 
play, whether considered as an impulse or as an 
indulgence, is neither wicked nor useless. 

There are two groups of theories as to the meaning 
of the play impulse in children, neither of them alto- 
gether satisfactory. According to the one, children 
do what they do as a preparation for the serious business 
they will have to carry on later. This assumes a 
purposeful implanting of impulses that have relations 
to needs that are to appear later, or an evolution of 
types in which the results of play during childhood 
were of survival value to adults. If one is willing to 
accept this kind of "explanation," he might as well 
ask for the implanting of instincts that are ready to 
work when needed. There is here an overemphasis 
on the supposed adaptiveness of all human traits, or a 
frank teleology. 

The other group of theories assumes the so-called 
law of biogenesis as universally applicable, and accord- 
no 



PLAY 117 

ingly looks upon the succession of impulses that the 
child manifests in the course of the years as a recapitula- 
tion of the outstanding activities of the various stages 
in our ancestral history. This implies that the 
cultural stage of the race at any time is the expression 
of the organic evolution attained, or that somehow the 
adjustive responses to the environment become fixed 
in the heritage of the race. 

Perhaps it suffices to look upon play as impulses to 
action due to the general complexity and irritability 
of the organism, the form of the play being determined 
by a combination of influences in the materials and 
processes present in the environment. Play is thus the 
progressively organized spontaneous activity of the 
child as distinguished from activity that is either 
mechanically acquired and meaningless routine move- 
ment, or outwardly directed or enforced "work." 

From this viewpoint we can at once see "play" 
directly related to an optimum of physical exertion 
and to a high emotional tone of a generally pleasurable 
quality, both making for physical and spiritual health. 
Moreover, as the child learns from his experiences, his 
play reacts upon his mental processes, and so influences 
further associations, thinking habits, and skill, as well 
as his mental content. 

For these reasons the spontaneous activities and 
interests require guidance both in the sense of protecting 
children against injurious or excessive activities, and 
in the positive sense of furnishing them opportunities 
and materials suitable to their successive stages of 
development, to their prevailing interests, and to their 
temperamental requirements. In this way the play 



118 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

of the child, from the shaking of a rattle to the organiza- 
tion of amateur theatricals for the benefit of unfortu- 
nates, is a vital education, and a progressive adjustment 
to the finding of satisfaction in arduous, constructive 
effort. The development of skill and endurance, the 
cultivation of persistence and courage, are quite within 
the effects of an intelligent direction of play interests. 
Because play is spontaneous as well as unproductive 
in a direct economic sense, children have been largely 
left to their own resources, in too many cases with 
incalculably injurious results. As we come to see the 
importance of play both for the health and happiness 
of the child day by day, and for his best development, 
we must make more provision for play materials and 
opportunities in school as well as in the home, and 
eventually in the community at large. Through 
playgrounds and parks, through recreation centers and 
amusement halls, properly directed and supervised, 
the children of the community must find the normal 
outlets for their impulses under conditions that make 
for the utmost satisfaction of the individual and the 
greatest safety and welfare of the group. 

OUTLINE 

1. THEORIES OF PLAY 

a. Wanton, wasteful, trifling 

b. Instinctive rehearsal for the game of life 

c. Recapitulation of the race's struggle 

2. VALUE OF PLAY 

a. Physical effects 

b. Relation to emotions and health 

c. Mental reactions 



PLAY 119 

3. DIRECTION OF PLAY 

a. Educational possibilities 

b. Grading of opportunities 

c. Play and work 

4. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR PLAY 

a. Provision in the home 

b. School 

c. Community organization 

(1) Playgrounds 

(2) Recreation centers 

(3) Amusements 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Addams, Jane — The Spiritof Youth and the City Street: 51-106 
Curtis, H. S. — Education Through Play: 1-16, 17-26, 59-84, 
345-355 

Gulick, L. H. — Psychological, Pedagogical, and Religious 
Aspects of Group Games: 

Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 135-151, 1898 
Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 

Chap. I, "Play is Serious"; 

Chap. VII, "Play and Teaching"; 

Chap. IX, "Play and Work"; 

Chap. XI, "The Four Ages of Childhood" 

Non-Technical 

Johnson, G. E. — Education by Play and Games: 

Chap. I, "Theory, History, and Place of Play in 

Education"; 
Chap. II, "Play in Education" 
Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 

Chap. IX, "Development of Adaptive Instincts — 
Play" 



120 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Tannek, A. E. — The Child: 
Chap. XX, "Play" 

Waddle, Charles W. — An Introduction to Child Psychology: 
Chap. VI, "The Play of Children" 

Technical 
Groos, Karl — The Play of Man: Pt. Ill 



28. TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE 

The instinct to wander is almost universal, at least 
just before maturity. The reason we do not all become 
vagrants lies apparently not so much in our indifference 
to new scenes and experiences, as in our ability to adjust 
ourselves more or less satisfactorily to a settled life. 

The impulse to move forth will show itself in most 
children as soon as there is reached a combination of 
facility in locomotion with an imagination that extends 
beyond the horizon — that is to say, in about the 
fourth year. The desire to see what lies around the 
corner or over the hill is perfectly legitimate; and its 
satisfaction with the cooperation of an adult may pre- 
vent the more dangerous surreptitious exploratory 
flight, or the strain and chafing of unfulfilled longing. 
The impulse is likely to attain its greatest force during 
adolescence, when it combines with other forces that 
push the child out of the monotony of his earlier routine. 

The desire to wander is related intellectually to 
curiosity, and emotionally to the romantic search for 
adventure and mystery. It would seem more profitable 
to deal with it in a constructive attempt to find satis- 
fying indulgences and substitutes, rather than to 
suppress it. Excursions and hikes can be arranged in 
most cases, even where extensive travel is precluded. 
To a certain extent reading and pictures and the movies 
and theater can be made to serve as satisfying sub- 
stitutes. 

121 



122 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Not all runaways are to be attributed to the presence 
of an exceptional urge. Under special circumstances, 
every boy and every girl will become aware of the 
desire to escape annoyance, or humiliation, or un- 
pleasant tasks of home or school. Many runaways 
are due to a temporary weakening of inhibition or 
control, or to a sudden whim, related to an accumula- 
tion of annoyances, or to friction with everyday 
associates. In tracing runaway escapades to the sug- 
gestiveness of the movies or of lurid literature, we must 
not overlook the fact that these suggestions pertain 
only to the form which the adventure may take, and 
do not initiate anything foreign to the thought or 
feelings of the child. The impulse to run away, as 
distinguished from the more continuous love of travel 
and adventure, is sporadic and dependent upon acute 
dissatisfaction or discontent rather than upon positive 
desires. It is negative in the sense that it represents 
the desire to get away from the present, rather than a 
seeking of something else, however vaguely defined. 

It seems to be fairly well established that in certain 
extreme and persistent forms the instinct to wander, 
termed " nomadism" by Davenport, following Lowell, 
is a definitely inherited trait. Nomadism occurs more 
often in boys than in girls for apparently the same 
reason that color-blindness does, namely, that it is due 
to a " sex-linked" character-determiner, which is trans- 
mitted through daughters to grandsons: a girl manifests 
this trait only if both her father and her maternal 
grandfather have it. This trait is more likely to be 
common in the pioneering stock of a young country 
than in more settled peoples. 



TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE 123 

In such inherited nomadism the danger is that it 
will not be recognized early enough to receive adequate 
opportunity and stimulation for diversion into useful 
channels. The nomadic impulse in a farm lad of the 
prairies may take him to sea as a runaway and a 
stowaway; but with a recognition of the tendency in 
childhood it should be possible to plan not only for 
systematic and legitimate outlets, but for systematic 
training for some occupation that makes use of the 
impulse in a constructive way. The genius of the great 
explorers and travelers probably has as one of its 
components this impulse to go out into the unknown, to 
move from place to place, on without end. One need 
not become an itinerant tinker; there are many re- 
spectable and worth-while occupations open to the 
individual for whom remaining in one place involves 
too great a strain. 

OUTLINE 

1. NATURE AND ORIGIN OF IMPULSE 

a. Relation to curiosity and romance 

b. Normal, universal trait 

c. Extreme form inherited 

d. Morbid origins 

2. MANIFESTATIONS 

a. Childish runaways 

b. Preadolescent and adolescent escapes 

c. Permanent wanderers 

d. Casual runaways 

3. TREATMENT 

a. Direct and authorized satisfaction of impulse 

(1) Excursions 

(2) Hikes, camping trips, etc. 

(3) Travel 



124 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

b. Substitutes 

(1) Reading 

(2) Theater 

(3) Pictures 

(4) Museums 

(5) Movies 

c. Sublimation 

Selection of and training for occupation that in- 
volves travel 
[See list of such occupations in Davenport's paper] 



REFERENCES 

Popular 

Forbush, W. B. — The Coming Generation: 
Chap. VIII, "The Wander Years" 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
"The Migratory Instinct," 232 

Non-Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: I, 348-349 

Puffer, J. A. — The Boy and His Gang: 

Chap. IX, "The Tribal Instincts and the Wander- 
lust" 

Technical 

Davenport, C. B. — Nomadism, or the Wandering Impulse, 
with Special Reference to Heredity: 7-68 

Kline, L. W. — Truancy as Related to the Migrating Instinct: 
Pedagogical Seminary, V, 381-420, 1898 
Migratory Impulse versus Love of Home: 
American Journal of Psychology, X, 1-81, 1898 



29. PETS AND PLANTS 

There is no substitute for the values both intellectual 
and moral which the child may derive from a certain 
intimacy with living things of other species. Aside 
from the direct satisfactions which their companionship 
and his occupation with their care yield, the keeping 
of pets, whether plant or animal, opens the way for a 
wide range of supplementary activities, furnishes a 
large body of useful information, and establishes 
habits of feeling and action of lasting benefit. 

On the side of understanding, the child learns the 
solid basis for organic existence in food, water, suitable 
temperature, removal of waste, and so on, principles 
that are readily carried over to his personal hygiene 
or to the community's or the home's practical prob- 
lems. On the side of responsibility, he quickly realizes 
the need for doing regularly and correctly, things whose 
omission brings suffering or death. The daily contact 
with plants or animals furnishes to those children who 
do not live in the country amid domesticated animals 
and crop plants an excellent opening for that body of 
knowledge and interpretation concerning sex which it 
is so essential to get early in life. 

There are substantial difficulties in the way of 
keeping such living companions in most town or city 
homes; but they are worth overcoming if that is at all 
possible. On the other hand, in the more crowded 
communities, there are developments that make pos- 

125 



126 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

sible for children the valuable contacts with living 
things through the utilization of the common re- 
sources, such as school, menagerie, garden, and so on. 

OUTLINE 

1. INTELLECTUAL ASPECTS 

a. Objective knowledge about living things 

b. Experience for organization of later knowledge 

c. The needs of organisms as basis for sanitation, 

hygiene, etc. 

d. Counteracting superstitious traditions and attitudes 

e. Basis for sex education 

2. EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS 

a. Demand upon tenderness and consideration 

b. Evoke carefulness and responsibility 

c. Aid in overcoming fear 

3. DIRECT SATISFACTIONS 

a. Joyous occupation and formation of hobbies 

b. Companionship 

c. Satisfying accessory occupations 

(1) Building houses for pets 

(2) Preparing ground for plants 

4. OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMUNITY SOLUTION 

a. Use of public grounds for gardens 

b. Cultivation of plants in school 

c. Care of live animals in school 

d. Wider use of public gardens and menageries 



REFERENCES 
Popular 
Adams, Morley — The Boy's Own Book of Pets and Hobbies 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 203-206 



PETS AND PLANTS 127 

Non-Technical 

Comstock, Anna B. — Handbook of Nature Study for Teach- 
ers and Parents: 924-928 

Garrett, Laura B. — Animal Families in School 

Technical 

Hodge, Clifton F. — Nature Study and Life: 

Chap. Ill, "Children's Animals and Pets" 

Holtz, Frederick L. — Nature Study: 
Chap. VII, "Animal Study" 

Practical 
Comstock, Anna B. — The Pet Book 
Grand all, Lee S. — Pets, Their History and Care 
Verrill, A. Hyatt — Pets for Pleasure and Profit 

Pamphlets 

United States Department of Agriculture Bulletins on 
Corn Clubs, Poultry Clubs, etc. 



30. THE OUTDOOR LIFE 

Very few "educated" men and women brought up 
in modern cities would be able, if suddenly thrown 
upon their own resources, to find their way about in 
the woods, to say nothing of finding necessary food, 
securing shelter or building a fire without the sophis- 
ticated appliances that are purchased at the store. 
There is, of course, no good reason why civilized people 
should either return to the savage state, or even 
acquire the primitive arts of life, for which the modern 
city furnishes few outlets. But there are substantial 
values to be derived from occasional or frequent returns 
to the primitive, for like Antaeus we gain fresh strength 
from every contact with mother earth. It is important 
for children to acquire early in life both the direct 
benefits of experiences with the world of nature, and a 
fondness for such experiences that will insure their 
continued recourse to them. 

For the child not too much molded by city life there 
is a wide range of satisfactions to be had from the direct 
contact with outdoor things, animate and inanimate. 
Fishing and hunting represent very early forms of 
activity which still appeal strongly to man of to-day, and 
which show themselves in the almost irresistible desire 
to throw stones at birds and squirrels, to stalk animals, 
and to let the mind wander afield through the open 
window with the first smell of spring. If we consider 
the destruction of living things in response to these 

128 



THE OUTDOOR LIFE 129 

impulses to be inexcusably wanton, it is possible to 
develop satisfying substitutes, as in the hobby of 
"shooting" game with a camera. At any rate the lure 
of the wild or of the water is there and deserving of large 
concessions, both for the physical health it makes 
available and for the release it offers from the strains 
of the artificialities of house and city. 

On the educational side, outdoor life offers acquaint- 
ance with the significant facts of nature; the lessons of 
inexorable law; the silences for thinking; limitless space 
for perspective. The activities of the canoe or hunting 
trip, of the long hike, or even of the cross-country tour 
and the fixed camp, draw constantly upon the ingenuity 
and rescourcefulness of the boy or girl, upon initiative 
and upon self-reliance. Far from the markets for 
standardized goods and services, one must either find 
a way or learn to do without. The lessons of coopera- 
tion, forbearance and considerateness are no less 
marked. 

Since it is not possible for most families to manage 
the combined advantage of city life and country life 
for their children, various schemes are being developed 
to provide the opportunities of adequate outdoor 
experience to increasing numbers of children. Besides 
a considerable variety of summer camps and boarding 
schools located in the country, there are country day 
schools in the neighborhood of many a large city, the 
city playground, the play school, the various organiza- 
tions that occupy boys or girls with outdoor activities, 
and the excursions that are possible to a degree in almost 
every school. 



130 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

OUTLINE 

1. THE BASIC NEED FOR CONTACT WITH THE OUTDOORS 

a. The satisfaction of primitive impulses 

b. The health factors 

c. The strains of the complex city life 

2. THE EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES OF THE OUTDOORS 

a. Intellectual aspects 

(1) The facts of nature 

Animate: plants, animals 

Inanimate: weather, stars, land, water 

(2) The solitude and silence for thinking 

(3) The constant evidence of inexorable law 

b. Emotional aspects 

(1) The moods of nature 

(2) The effect of vastness on sense of perspective 

and poise 

(3) Development of esthetic interests 

c. Socializing aspects 

(1) Cooperation reduced to its elements 

(2) Character effects of games 

(3) Discovery of abilities and resources 

(4) Development of self-reliance 

(5) Demand upon initiative 

3. SPECIAL PROVISION FOR CITY CHILDREN 

a. Summer camps 

b. Special organizations 

(1) Scouts 

(2) Woodcraft League 

(3) Campfire Girls, etc. 

c. Playgrounds 

d. Excursions 

e. Country day school 

f . Country boarding school 

g. Play schools 



THE OUTDOOR LIFE 131 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Curtis, H. S. — Education through Play: 

Chap. VII, "The School Playgrounds of American 

Cities"; 
Chap. XII, "Recreation at Summer Schools"; 
Chap. XIV, "The School Camp" 

Forbush, W. B. — The Coming Generation 

Hough, Emerson — Out of Doors: 
Chap. I and ad lib. 

Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 

Chap. XXVII, "Nurture in the Big Injun Age" 



31. HOBBIES 

The hobbies of adults represent the more highly- 
individualized remains of early play activities. While 
we all desire leisure, either as an escape from disagree- 
able tasks or simply as rest from excessive labor, how- 
ever pleasant, comparatively few people have cultivated 
permanently satisfying interests and occupations for 
their leisure. The first value suggested by "hobby" is 
that of a refuge from tedium in old age or in enforced 
idleness. But investigations show that very rarely 
does an adult follow a spare-time pursuit that was not 
cultivated in childhood. The foundation for hobbies 
must be laid before adolescence, although there may 
be endless refinement and specialization. 

From the viewpoint of the child's development, a 
hobby ordinarily does not appear very early. There 
should be a wide range of play or spontaneous activity, 
for it is through such activity that the child discovers 
the world and himself. Gradually the more satisfying 
activities will receive increasing amounts of time and 
effort. It is important only that specialization be not 
forced too early, as by limiting the range of oppor- 
tunity, or by overdirection from adults, and that the 
child learn to do whatever he does with zeal. 

As a rule the spirit of play does not enter into the 
major activities of life; it can best be preserved by 
hobbies. They should therefore be cultivated for the 
values which play yields. The pursuit of a hobby 

132 



HOBBIES 133 

stimulates effort, opens up lines of interest and main- 
tains enthusiasms when there is nothing to do but work. 
It serves as a means for unifying many diverse interests 
and efforts, and to widen the sympathies by giving 
experience in the field of varied pursuits and interests. 

OUTLINE 

1. THE SOURCES OF HOBBIES 

a. Spare-time activities of children 

b. Influence of companions, reading, local esteem for 

various pursuits, casual factors 

c. Gradual differentiation 

d. Impress of individuality 

2. THE VALUE OF HOBBIES 

For the child 

a. The educational values of play as spontaneous 

activity and interest 

(1) A means for becoming acquainted with sur- 

roundings and with his own capacities and 
limitations 

(2) A means for acquiring control of surroundings 

and of himself 

(3) A means for adjusting to other human beings 

b. As experience with variety of materials and forces 

(1) A means for unifying knowledge and skill 

(2) A means for acquiring specialized expertness 

c. As absorbing interest 

(1) A source of stimulation to effort 

(2) A source of insight to other people's interests 
For the older person 

a. A source of enthusiasm when most activities have 

become routinized 

b. A bond of interest with other enthusiasts 

c. A helpful source of stimulation 

d. A profitable occupation for free time 



134 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

3. THE NEEDS OF CHILDREN 

a. Opportunity for widest contacts 

b. Encouragement to try out whatever is humanly in- 

teresting and socially tolerable 

c. Approval of and sympathy for early enthusiasms 

d. Avoidance of early specialization 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 75-78, 219-222 

Non-Technical 
Bonser, Fredrick. G. — School Work and Spare Time 



32. CHILDREN'S BOOKS AND READING 

Books constitute for most children one of the most 
potent sources of inspiration and guidance. Their 
selection is important at every stage, because it will 
determine both how far children will continue to resort 
to books, as well as the kinds of influence the books 
will, for the time being, exert. 

Books yield not only the information which they 
record, but moral guidance and stimulus, interpretation 
and insight into life, vicarious adventure and pastime. 
Yet we must not expect every book to yield all of these 
values. It is sufficient if a given book does only one or 
another of the many useful things that a book can do. 

The desirability of a book will depend not upon the 
number of different tasks that it performs, but on how 
well it meets its main purpose. The information in a 
book should be reliable. The sentiment it breathes 
should be sound, the text should be well written, and 
its style and illustrations should be in good taste. 
From the viewpoint of a particular child a book should 
be interesting, it should supply his needs, and it should 
address him on his proper intellectual level. 

These specifications, however, do not imply a static 
test of good books, nor the possibility of selecting 
"best" books. The growing child is normally shifting 
his interests; what was a very interesting book yester- 
day, is to-day stale, flat, and unprofitable. His intel- 
lectual growth requires a graded body of reading. 

135 



136 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Needs and interests change with the seasons and with 
fashions. Events of local or of temporary importance 
will call for a line of reading far from universal or 
permanent. Historical celebrations or other special 
occasions will determine what is best for the time and 
place. 

Further modifications of the good as well as of the 
best will arise from the fact that changes are constantly- 
taking place in the arts and sciences, and the child's 
reading should keep him measurably in sight of what 
will concern his contemporaries in the years to come 
and not restrict him to what startled his ancestors. 
Moreover, there are constant developments in social 
and public life which reflect themselves in fiction as 
well as in books of travel, biography, poetry, and even of 
a technical sort, as in books on means of transportation 
and communication. The child's reading, however, 
should not be confined to the new any more than to the 
old. Acquaintance with certain classics is a necessary 
part of the individual's equipment. Folk and fairy 
tales of many peoples not only enrich later reading 
and supply satisfying nurture to the child's imagination, 
but they furnish a valuable introduction to the customs 
and thinking of far-away peoples, thus meeting the 
normal travel interest. It nevertheless remains true 
that many of the fairy tales need careful editing to 
make them of greatest value to our children. 

In increasing numbers new books are forthcoming 
that have the merits of the old with certain advantages 
that the old can never have. This is particularly true 
in the development of imaginative stories, which are 
of such great value to young children. When fairy 



CHILDREN'S BOOKS AND READING 137 

tales were alone available in this field they were used 
and preferred to other types of literature. But the 
application of keener insight into the child's mind to the 
writing of special books for children will gradually 
replace certain of the older fairy tales, much to the 
benefit of the children. 

In the purchase of books for children we meet the 
constant temptation of sets or series which offer to 
save us the trouble of selecting what is worth while or 
especially desirable. These sets, however, assume 
standardized children, standardized needs, standardized 
"best" reading. Their purchase does indeed save 
considerable effort, but it also cuts off an avenue of 
mutual interest between parent and child, since it 
delegates and dismisses a function which should be 
continuously exercised — that of deciding from time 
to time what is most valuable for this particular child 
in the present circumstances. The complete set, 
moreover, will be sure to contain a considerable amount 
of dead material, and its installation loses the stimulat- 
ing value of novelty, which each separate book could 
bring with it. 

Even in the case of books intended chiefly as sources 
of information, it is better to get the child accustomed 
to consult specialized sources of information and 
authoritative encyclopedia rather than diluted com- 
pendia of universal knowledge, written down and 
frequently distorted in the effort to adapt it to immature 
minds. There is a certain air of finality in all such 
compilations which leaves an undesirable intellectual 
complacency with the young reader. 

There are no doubt many children who can get 



138 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

nothing from the printed page unless the matter is 
written down to them; but we should at least give every 
child an opportunity to sample genuine literature within 
his comprehension until his limitations disclose them- 
selves. For the adolescent especially is it desirable to 
provide an introduction to serious fiction rather than 
permit a continued indulgence in machine-made ro- 
mance and adventure that help only to fix the outlook 
and the appreciation at childish levels. 

The child should early begin the slow accumulation 
of his own library, and at the same time learn to read 
books borrowed from libraries and other sources, for 
it is well to acquire a discrimination that distinguishes 
between books that are to be read and dismissed, and 
books that are to remain permanent resources. 

OUTLINE 

1. THE VALUE OF READING 

a. Communication from those remote in space and time 

b. Source of information 

c. Interpretation and meanings; aid to insight 

d. Moral guidance 

e. Inspiration and stimulus 

f. Pastime, recreation 

g. Vicarious adventure and experience 

2. THE CRITERIA OF BOOKS 

a. Information must be reliable 

b. Sentiment must be sound 

c. Taste must be good 

d. Style and diction 

3. THE RELATION OF BOOKS TO THE CHILD 

a. Book must be interesting 
(1) Individual variation 



CHILDREN'S BOOKS AND READING 139 

(2) Shifting interests 

Change with age 

Local and passing occasions 

(3) Arousing interests 

b. Book must meet child's needs 

c. Book must be suited to intellectual level 

d. Books for adolescents 

e. Danger of reading as indulgence and withdrawal from 

reality 

4. THE SELECTION OF BOOKS 

a. Need for classics, fairy tales, fables, etc. 

b. Need for the new 

(1) Science, discovery, the arts 

(2) Development of public relations 

c. Eclectic series vs. single books 

d. Compendia and encyclopedia 

e. Selection a continuous process 

5. BOOKS AND LIBRARIES 

a. Advantage of owning books 

b. Need for libraries and borrowed books 



REFERENCES 
Popular 
Adler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children: 64-105 

Brill, A. A. — Fundamental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis: 
Chap. XII, "Fairy Tales and Artistic Conceptions" 

Bryant, Sara Cone — Stories to Tell to Children 

Coe, F. E. — First Book of Stories for the Story-Teller 

Field, Walter T. — Fingerposts to Children's Reading 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 192-197 

Hunt, Clara W. — What Shall We Read to Children? 

Lowe, Orton — Literature for Children 



140 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Lyman, Edna — Story Telling: What to Tell and How to 
Tell It 

Macy, John — A Guide to Reading 

Moore, Annie C. — Roads to Childhood 

Moses, Montrose J. — Children's Books and Reading 

Olcott, Frances J. — The Children's Reading: 
Chap. VI, "The Use of Fairy Tales"; 
Chap. VII, "The Use of Fables"; 
Chap. VIII, "Supplementary Remarks on Fables"; 
Chap. IX, "Selected Stories from the Bible"; 
Chap. X, "The Odyssey and the Iliad" 

Sharp, Dallas L. — Education for Individuality: 
Atlantic Monthly, June, 1920 

The Federation for Child Study — A Selected List of 
Books for Children (Revised annually) 



33. ARTS IN THE LIFE OF THE CHILD 

Instead of thinking of "art" as something exclusive, 
reserved for the exceptionally favored few, we must 
think of it as a common human heritage limited only 
by our varying capacities to appreciate and to create 
beauty. From earliest infancy the child manifests 
satisfactions resulting from mere sensation, such as 
loud sounds, bright flashes of light or color, touching of 
the skin in various parts of the body. From such 
simple satisfactions with simple stimuli, there gradually 
emerges a progressive discrimination; all sounds are no 
longer alike, colors become differentiated, and forms of 
distinct objects bring varying amounts of satisfaction. 
The basic principles of art, the characteristics of what 
all people deem "beautiful," can be felt long before 
they can be formulated, or even before the philosopher's 
formulation can be understood. But the appreciation 
of harmony, as unity within variety, the satisfaction 
with fitness or adaptation, and with economy, are 
present with all normal children. 

Interpretation as an intellectual process begins 
usually with the attempt to analyze or evaluate more 
complex art forms, such as poetry or drama; in the 
development of critical literature the treatment of these 
and painting, sculpture and architecture precede the 
interpretation of music and the dance. In so far as 
"interpretation" is wholly or chiefly esthetic, it pro- 
ceeds from a sympathetic imitation of the model and is 

141 



142 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

found for all the arts both at a relatively low stage of 
culture and at an early stage in the child's development. 

For the development of the child's creative im- 
pulses, there must be first of all ample freedom for his 
activities. This means of course more than merely 
leaving him to himself, for it involves time and place 
and materials with which to work — or play. It 
means also the avoidance of overwhelming the child 
with an excess of conventionalized forms, whether 
in the way of nursery rhymes or of pictures to copy 
or models to mold. In the second place, there must be 
the opportunity to acquire an understanding of what 
may be called the symbolism of art, the fact that one 
thing may represent another, and may be legitimately 
used for this purpose. We must not insist upon too 
great literalness or " veracity" in the child's inventions. 
Beauty, like truth, takes on a multitude of forms — 
and is not always naked. There must be stimulation 
to effort, chiefly through quiet encouragement and 
" constructive criticism," which consists apparently 
of stressing the good points in the child's work and 
ignoring the other ones. With broadening experience 
and the discovery of new possibilities in theme and 
medium, he learns his own resources as well as his 
limitations. Instruction and inspiration must come in 
accordance with the talents. 

On the side of appreciation, both the home and the 
school can do much more than is commonly attempted. 
The influences, commercial and others, that tend to 
degrade popular standards of taste need to be recognized 
and systematically combatted by those who value 
higher standards for their humanizing and socializing 



ARTS IN THE LIFE -OF THE CHILD 143 

effects as well as for the personal satisfactions they yield. 
The parents who confine their efforts to saving their 
own children from those degrading influences may find 
in the end that they have merely oversensitized the 
chosen few while the multiplication of ugliness continues 
unabated. The influence of the furniture and dress 
and decorations in the child's surroundings, the subtle 
suggestiveness of everyday comment and criticism, 
the sights in the street, in public places, in museums, 
hold great possibilities. With the older child, these 
influences may well be supplemented by lectures and 
literature. 

OUTLINE 

1. ESTHETIC FEELINGS 

a. Satisfaction from mere sensation 

b. Discrimination, a process of growth 

c. Esthetic response before the intellectual 

2. GRADING OF THE ARTS 

a. On side of creation 

b. On side of appreciation 

c. On side of interpretation 

3. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CREATIVE IMPULSES 

a. Freedom 

b. Understanding of symbolism 

c. Stimulation of effort 

d. Inspiration and instruction 

e. Mastery of technique 

4. DEVELOPMENT OF APPRECIATION 

a. Influence of surroundings 

b. Social aspects 

c. Suggestions and guidance 

d. Use of museums 

e. Instruction and literature 



144 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 198-202 

Hall and Others — Art Museums and Schools: 

" Museums of Art and Teachers of History," 67-94 

Hurll, E. M. — How to Show Pictures to Children: 7-14; 
Chap. Ill, "How the Picture Is Made"; 
Chap. IV, "How to Make Pictures Tell Stories"; 
Chap. VI, "Practical Suggestions to the Mother for 

the Child's Picture Education"; 
Chap. VIII, "Animal Pictures"; 
Chap. X, "Story Pictures" 

Scott, C. A. — Social Education: 
Chap. XI, "Fine Art" 

Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 341-345, 373-380 

Winterburn, F. A. — The Mother in Education: 

Chap. XII, " Self -Expression Through Drawing"; 
Chap. XX, "^Esthetic Education" 

Non-Technical 

Balliet, T. M. — The Domain of Art Education: 

National Education Association Addresses and Pro- 
ceedings, 1916, 493-496 

Cornell, G. A. — Art in the Kindergarten: 

National Education Association Addresses and Pro- 
ceedings, 1916, 307-310 

Hall, G. Stanley — Youth: 42-45 

Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 

Chap. IX, "The Child as Artist" 



ARTS IN THE LIFE OF THE CHILD 145 

Technical 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: Second Series, 34, 
74, 109, 151, 163, 231, 271, 314, 352, 388 

Dewey, J. — Psychology: 

Chap. XI, "Sensuous Feeling"; 
Chap. XV, "Esthetic Feeling" 

Pfister, O. — The Psychoanalytic Method: 388-404 

Woodworth, R. S. — Psychology: 182-183, 512-517 



34. MUSIC 

Society desires not only that children shall learn 
certain useful things, but that they shall become men 
and women of a certain type of personality. In select- 
ing educational material, therefore, regard is had not 
only to the value of what is learned for general and 
special use, but also to the effect it may have upon 
emotions, intellect, and character. With this aim in 
mind, music in the educational development of the child 
is a large factor affecting the emotional life. Modern 
pedagogy and psychology advocate stimulating expres- 
sion, and sound a warning note against suppression 
and repression. 

The experience of music should precede instruction 
about music or the study of an instrument. People 
sang and danced for thousands of years before there 
was any written record of their music. A child who 
has learned a large number of beautiful melodies "by 
ear" and whose rhythmic sense has been developed by 
marching, skipping, dancing, and rhythmic movements 
in time to music, has a fund of musical experience that 
will be invaluable to him later on, whether he is to play 
an instrument or not. 

Every child can and should be taught to listen 
happily and intelligently to music in so far as his native 
capacity will permit, just as he should be taught to 
appreciate literature, whether he is going to write 
books or not. 

146 



MUSIC 147 

OUTLINE 

1. IN THE HOME 

a. For the young child 

(1) Hearing and singing simple folk songs and nur- 

sery rhymes 

(2) Dramatizing songs and nursery rhymes 

(3) Singing games 

(4) Creating atmosphere of joy, and allowing child 

to express himself 

(5) The early appeal to and development of the 

sense of melody and rhythm, the two strong- 
est elements of music 

b. For the entire family 

(1) Singing beautiful songs in unison and in parts 

(2) The great power of music as a social force 

(3) The unifying effect of creating something beau- 

tiful together 

2. IN THE SCHOOL 

a. Psychological function 

(1) To arouse, express, and convey feelings 

(2) The educative power of enjoyment 

b. Social function 

Group participation; chorus, school orchestra, folk 
dancing 

c. Utilization of music in festivals 

(1) Music in the play 

(2) Music as a framework for the play 

d. Teaching the appreciation of music 

e. School credit 

(1) Allowance by the school of time for practicing 

done at home 

(2) Credit given by the school for standardized 

instrumental work 

f . Standard tests for musical capacity 

3. INSTRUMENTAL TEACHING 

a. At what age to begin 

Dependent on the child's musical ability and in- 
terest 



148 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

b. Individual lessons at home or in a school of music 

Advantages of group study and of constant playing 
for others 

c. Practicing 

(1) The deadening effect of endless repetitions 

(2) The necessity of keeping the mind alert and 

active 

(3) Reading and memorizing 

(4) The joy of reading music akin to the joy of 

reading books 

d. Modern methods of procedure 

4. VALUE OF MECHANICAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 

a. Player piano, victrola, etc. 

(1) A means of creating a taste for and acquaint- 

ance with the best music 

(2) Careful discrimination in the selection of rec- 

ords, the same as applied in the choice of 
reading matter for our children 



REFERENCES 

Popular 
Cady, Calvin B. — Music Education 
Farnsworth, C. H. — How to Study Music 
Mason, D. G. — A Child's Guide to Music 
Seymour, Harriet A. — What Music Can Do For You 
(All contain good Bibliographies) 

Non-Technical 

Smith, Hannah — Music and How It Came to be What It is 

Surette, T. W. — Music and Life: 

Chap. II, "Music for Children"; 

Chap. V, "The Opera"; 

Chap. VI-VII, "The Symphony" 



MUSIC 149 

For the Child 
Bacon, M. S. — Songs that Every Child Should Know 
Burchenal, Elizabeth — Folk Dances 
Davison and Surette — Rote Songs 
Elliot, J. W. — Mother Goose Songs 
Hadow, W. H. — Songs of the British Islands 
Sharp, Cecil J. — Folk Songs, Chanteys, and Singing Games 

For the Home 

Bach, J. S. — Chorales (Selected by Bertha Elsmith and 
T. W. Surette) 
Sacred Songs (Arranged by Wullner) 

Fink, Henry T., Editor — Fifty Master Songs by Twenty 
Composers 

Whitehead, J. R., Editor — Folk Songs and Other Songs for 
Children 

For the School 

Chubb and Associates — Festivals and Plays: 

Pt. II, "Music in the Festival" (Peter W. 
Dykema). (Demonstrating how to use music in 
connection with festivals, with full bibliography 
of music and songs) 

Kedson and Neal — English Folk Song and Dance 

(Giving the origin of the folk song and its evolution 
with a full bibliography upon English Folk Music. 
The second half of the book treats of the English 
Folk Dance) 

Page, Kate Stearns — Robin Hood 

(A short play introducing English folk songs and 
dances of the Robin Hood period) 



150 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Sharp Cecil J. — An Introduction to the English Country 
Dance 
(The first part of the book gives a sketch 01 the 
history of the country dance and a description of 
the steps. The second half consists of directions 
for special dances. Published in parts) 



35. HEREDITY 

With respect to every point that distinguishes a 
person from his fellows, the most frequent question 
asked is whether it is a native trait, or the result of 
training or experience, or of other external influence 
acting during the course of development. From a 
biological viewpoint, what is inherited is the total of 
potentialities, which can manifest themselves only in 
the course of development under suitable conditions; 
and, on the other hand, the effect of these conditions 
depends in the last analysis upon the "inheritance" of 
the organism. 

There are practical problems whose solution depends 
upon recognizing both the capacities of the child and 
the bearing of the manifold external influences upon the 
development of these capacities. Thus, on the physical 
side, a child of a tall strain has the capacity to grow 
taller than his companions, but his attainment of 
maximum stature depends upon suitable feeding and 
other environmental factors. And these same condi- 
tions will enable another child to attain his maximum 
development which will, however, be measurably less 
than that of the first child. There is evidence to show 
not only that mental peculiarities depend upon the 
structure of the nervous and other systems of the body 
(particularly muscles and glands) but that, wherever 
they can be directly observed, they follow the same 
forms of transmission from generation to generation as 

151 



152 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

do the physical traits. This principle holds of the 
emotional powers, of the temper or disposition, and of 
any special talent. The individual at any given 
moment represents the result of the interaction of all 
of his inheritance and all of his individual experience, 
whether favorable or unfavorable. 

The characters present in the offspring of two 
parents are found in some cases to lie midway between 
the corresponding characters of the parents; but in 
many cases the resemblance is altogether to one parent 
or altogether to the other parent. Thus certain 
characters show "dominance," as of dark eyes as against 
blue eyes. In succeeding generations the children of 
dark-eyed offspring of mixed parentage will " segregate," 
some having blue eyes and some dark. The presence 
of more or less complete dominance with subsequent 
segregation has been observed with respect to hundreds 
of characters in various plants and animals, including 
man. 

Each pair of contrasting characters present in the 
lineage goes on combining and splitting up in succeeding 
generations, altogether independently of other pairs of 
characters. Each character thus behaves as an inde- 
pendent unit. As a result we find that each child 
resembles both parents (or both strains of ancestry) 
not by having each trait in some condition inter- 
mediate between the conditions of the two parents, but 
by having some characters altogether like those of the 
mother's side, and other characters altogether like those 
of the father's side. 

There are certain characters in human beings as 
well as among other organisms, which seem to result 



HEREDITY 153 

from the presence in the inheritance of two or more 
transmitted factors. As a result the individual shows 
peculiarities not to be recognized in either line of 
ancestors (except where the factors and their mani- 
festations are known); and as a further result there is 
failure to transmit this combination (because of segrega- 
tion) to future generations. This probably explains 
why "genius" is not only rare, but also never repeats 
itself. 

The physical basis for the facts of heredity is fairly 
well understood, and is found in the structure and 
behavior of the nuclear matter in germ cells. 

Because of the early separation during development 
of the living matter that is to form the germinal or 
reproductive protoplasm, from that which is to form 
the body of the individual, it becomes impossible to 
influence the inheritance of the progeny through the 
training or experience of the parents, although the 
developing embryo, as well, perhaps, as the germ cell, 
may be affected by disease, overwork or underfeeding. 
There is thus no practical reality underlying the con- 
cepts "maternal impression," "transmission of modi- 
fications," etc. 

The practical application of an understanding of the 
facts of heredity, so far as the individual is concerned, 
will be directed to discovering native capacities worth 
cultivating, native limitations that need compensating 
through the cultivation of other traits, and the provid- 
ing of an environment that will furnish the most favor- 
able opportunity for healthy development. So far as 
the community is concerned, there is need for recogniz- 
ing that certain types or strains of the population are 



154 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

more desirable than others, and for finding means of 
encouraging the propagation of one, and restraining or 
preventing the multiplication of the other. 

OUTLINE 

1. VARIATION 

a. Kinds of variation 

(1) Physical 

(2) Mental 

b. Source of variation 

(1) Nature 

(2) Nurture 

2. THE LAWS OF HEREDITY 

a. Dominance 

b. Segregation 

c. Unit characters 

d. Multiple factors 

3. THE BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY 

a. The physical bearers of character 

b. Chromosome reduction 

c. Fertilization and the combining of characters 

4. SPECIAL PROBLEMS 

a. Prenatal influence 

b. Transmission of modifications 

c. Inheritance of disease 

5. APPLICATIONS 

a. Individual 

(1) Discover limits and potentialities 

(2) Furnish environment favoring desirable traits 

(3) Avoid environment favoring undesirable traits 

b. Social 

(1) Principles of eugenics 

(2) Cultivation of taste in personality 



HEREDITY 155 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Conklin, E. G. — Heredity and Environment in the Develop- 
ment of Man: 
Chap. V, "The Control of Heredity: Eugenics" 

Downing, E. R. — The Third and Fourth Generation 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
Chap. XIV, "Heredity and Environment" 

Jennings, H. L. — Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning 
Education: 
"The Biology of Children in Relation to Educa- 
tion," 1-17 

Non-Technical 

Coulter and Others — Heredity and Eugenics: 

Chap. I, "Recent Development in Heredity and 

Evolution"; 
Chap. VIII, "The Inheritance of Physical and Men- 
tal Traits"; 
Chap. IX, "The Geography of Man in Relation to 
Eugenics" 

Technical 

Davenport, C. B. — Nomadism, or the Wandering Impulse, 
with Special Reference to Heredity 
Violent Temper and Its Inheritance 

East and Jones — Inbreeding and Outbreeding: 
Chap. I, "Introduction"; 
Chap. IV, "The Mechanism of Heredity"; 
Chap. XII, "The Effect on the Individual"; 
Chap. XIII, "The Intermingling of Races and Na- 
tional Stamina" 



156 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Guyer, M. — Being Well Born: 
Chap. I, "Heredity"; 
Chap. Ill, "Mendelism"; 

Chap. IV, "Mendelism in Man," 29-60, 121-128, 
138-163, 178-194 

Morgan, T. H. — The Physical Basis of Heredity: 
Chap. I, "Introduction"; 
Chap. IV, "Mendel's Second Law"; 
Chap. XVI, "Chromosomes as Bearers of Hered- 
itary Units"; 
Chap. XVII, "Cytoplasmic Inheritance" 



36. SEX EDUCATION 

Entirely apart from the function of reproduction, 
the presence of the sex organs in the body of the boy 
or girl gives rise through the internal secretions to a 
vast variety of impulses that in themselves have no 
obvious relation either to reproduction of the species or 
to other matters commonly thought of as constituting 
"sex." The self-assertive impulses as well as the 
altruistic ones, the interests that make possible art and 
science and religion as well as the most perverse 
degradations of the human spirit, seem to arise from 
the sex constitution of the growing child. The same 
impulses resting in the basic fact of sex are capable on 
the one hand of the loftiest reaches of spiritual attain- 
ment, or, on the other hand, of the lowest depths of 
bestiality and perversion. 

Knowledge of these relations between his spiritual 
possibilities and the developing sex nature may well be 
withheld from the growing child; but sooner or later 
ignorance becomes a source of danger, not alone to the 
individual himself, but more especially perhaps to the 
younger people whose development is in the hands of 
ignorant men and women. There is the shock that 
comes when the child, having been compelled by the 
taboos of respectables and by the depravity of his 
irresponsible informants to consider sex as something 
base, suddenly learns that his own parents have been 
defiled by it. There is the danger of perversion when 

157 



158 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

the upsurging desires can find no satisfactions, either in 
the biologically normal though socially impermissible 
sex relations, or in diversions into substitute interests 
and activities. There is the danger of mental disturb- 
ance when the repressed powers produce strains for 
which the boy or girl can find no release. There is the 
danger of seduction by older unscrupulous persons of 
either sex; and there is the danger of the venereal 
diseases with their train of calamity and tragedy. 

These dangers of ignorance on the part of the 
individual or of his guardians call for more serious 
attention to the manifold unconscious manifestations 
of sex in the child. This does not mean that the child 
is to be informed at the earliest possible moment of 
all that the race has learned. It means, in the first 
place, the provision of conditions that are favorable to 
the healthy growth of the body, and the healthy growth 
of the spirit, which is in reality the healthy unfolding 
of the whole organism, inclusive of sex. It means the 
provision of exercise and cleanliness and games, and the 
establishment of habits and interest that will continue 
exercise and cleanliness and playing, as a part of the 
day by day life through the years. It means the 
cultivation of creative activities and habits that may 
be retained through life as channels for the partial 
drawing away of the transformed or sublimated sex 
impulse, of which the normal, healthy boy or girl, 
man or woman, has much more than is needed for the 
fulfilling of the sexual function of reproduction, in 
modern life. It means the cultivation of interest in 
music and art and literature, in travel and adventure, 
in the pursuit of science or of social reform, or of some 



SEX EDUCATION 159 

growing hobby. The religious observances that men 
and women retain through the years furnish, apart from 
any aid they may give to strengthen the resolution, or 
the resistance to temptation, a safety valve for the 
emotional strain set up by the internal secretions of the 
sex glands. To the extent of each individual's capacity, 
there is need of opportunity to develop his idealism 
and his various partial impulses, such as curiosity, 
pugnacity, acquisitiveness, exhibitionism, etc., to the 
highest possible level. 

This is sex education of an implicit Dut very neces- 
sary kind. We may prefer to call it recreation, or 
character training, which indeed it is; but it is important 
for the trainer of character to understand that he is 
dealing with forces that have their source and their 
end in the sex nature of the child. It is further neces- 
sary, however, to give the child, from time to time, in 
proportion to his ability to understand, certain explicit 
information. The responsibility for this rests primarily 
with the home, first because the needed instruction must 
begin long before the child is ready for school, and 
second because through furnishing the information as 
needed the parent establishes a line of mutual under- 
standing and confidence that is otherwise maintained 
only with difficulty. By answering the child's ques- 
tions as they arise, as to the source of babies or puppies, 
by introducing from time to time more circumstantial 
detail about the facts of sex in plants and animals, and 
gradually about the various aspects of sex in human 
life, the parent can bring the child by slow stages to 
both knowledge and understanding, to both facts and 
feelings that make for a wholesome attitude and for 



160 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

more certain self-control. The education should in- 
clude not merely the physical facts of reproduction, the 
particular sex manifestations of both sexes, sexual 
diseases, etc., but also cover the sordid low standards 
which make for prostitution, illegitimacy, and then lead 
on and up to the meaning of marriage in its various 
aspects and highest ideals. 

OUTLINE 

1. IMPORTANCE OF SEX IN LIFE 

a. The internal secretions 

b. Manifestations of sex in infancy 

c. Connection between sex and the higher capacities 

2. DANGERS OF IGNORANCE 

a. Shock 

b. Perversions 

c. Repressions 

d. Mental disturbances 

e. Venereal diseases 

3. REGIMEN FOR UTILIZING SEX IMPULSES 

a. Physical health 

b. Abundant exercise 

c. Interest in games and athletics 

d. Interest in creative activities 

e. Formation of ideals 

f. Cultivation of social and chivalrous attitudes 

g. Attainment of self-control 

4. INSTRUCTION ABOUT SEX 

a. Responsibility of parent and other agencies 

b. Timeliness of instruction 

c. Material and method of instruction 

d. Keep line of communication open 



SEX EDUCATION 161 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
Gallichan, Walter M. — Sex Education 
Galloway, T. W. — The Father and His Boy 

Biology of Sex for Parents and Teachers 
Gruenberg, B. C. — Parents and Sex Education 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 

Chap. XII, "The Stork or the Truth" 

Hood, Mary G. — For Girls and the Mothers of Girls 
Latimer, Caroline W. — Girl and Woman 
Stowell, William L. — Sex for Parents and Teachers 

Non-Technical 
Bigelow, Maurice A. — Sex Education 
Exner, Max J. — Problems and Principles of Sex Education 
Geddes and Thompson — Sex 
Healy, William — Mental Conflicts and Misconduct: 

Chap. X, " Conflicts Arising from Sex Conflicts"; 
Chap. XI, "Conflicts Arising from Secret Sex 
Knowledge" 
Long, Constance — Psychology of Phantasy: 

Chap. VII, "Sex as a Basis of Character"; 
Chap. VIII, "Unconscious Factors in Sex Educa- 
tion" 

Stowell, W. L. — Sex for Parents and Teachers 
Wedekind, Frank — Awakening of Spring 
Anonymous — A Young Girl's Diary 

Technical 

Bousefield, Paul — The Elements of Practical Psychology: 
Chap. Ill, "Evolution of the Erotic Impulse" 



162 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Foerster, F. W. — Marriage and the Sex Problem 
Foeel, August — The Sexual Question 
Gruenberg, B. C. — High Schools and Sex Education 
Moll, Albert — The Sexual Life of the Child 

Pamphlets 

Armstrong, D. B. and E. B. — Sex in Life for Adolescent 
Boys and Girls 

Campbell, C. Macfie — Nervous Children and Their Train- 
ing: Mental Hygiene, III, 16-23, 1919 

Dennett, Mary Ware — The Sex Side of Life 

Gardiner, Ruth Kimball — Your Daughter's Mother 

Feabody, James E. — Some Experiments in Sex Education 
in the Home and High School 

The Parents' Part, issued by the Treasury Department, U. S. 
Public Health Service 



37. ADOLESCENCES-PHYSICAL 

The " storm and stress" of adolescence, long con- 
sidered as essentially characteristic of the period, 
have been looked forward to with fear and dread. A 
better understanding of the causes for the undoubted 
strains makes it seem possible that the child can be 
piloted through adolescence without serious crises. 

After a few years of steady physical growth, the 
child presents an almost sudden acceleration of develop- 
ment. This period is closely connected with the 
approaching maturity of the reproductive organs, and 
many at least of the physical and emotional changes are 
initiated by the presence in the blood of specific sub- 
stances produced by these organs. 

The rapid and unequal growth of organs gives rise 
not only to a rapid evolution of muscular and nervous 
energies that must have safe channels for their dis- 
charge, but also certain difficulties of conduct and 
adjustment such as awkward traits in carriage and 
action, many automatic movements, alternations of 
overexertion and lassitude, and others. These ener- 
gies need guidance and opportunities rather than sup- 
pression, and the physical and emotional health present 
the chief problems of the period. 

Physical activities in the form of sports and athletics 
should be both more vigorous and better organized 
than during the earlier years. They serve as outlets 
for the vast amount of energy generated, as means for 

163 



164 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

perfecting control of the muscles, and as a means for 
training in emotional and social adjustment. Hand 
in hand with vigorous exercise there should, of course, 
be not only abundance of suitable food and the assur- 
ance of sufficient sleep, but a periodical physical 
examination to detect the condition of the heart, etc., 
and any need for corrective work. 

OUTLINE 

1. PHYSICAL CHANGES 

a. Sudden acceleration of growth 

b. Unequal development of various tissues and organs 

c. Rapid increase in muscular and nervous energy 

d. The maturing of the sex organs 

e. Chemical changes affecting appetite, fatigue, immu- 

nity to disease 

f . Increased sensory acuteness 

2. EFFECTS IN CONDUCT 

a. Awkwardness of movement 

b. Modifications in posture and gait 

c. Automatic movements 

d. Overexertion alternating with lassitude 

e. Marked irritability 

f . Finicky appetite ; digestive disturbances 

g. Advantages of steady habits during childhood 

3. REGIMEN FOR SPECIAL NEEDS 

a. Outlet for energy 

(1) Vigorous games 

(2) Gardening 

(3) Cold bath 

(4) Boxing 

(5) Swimming 

b. Compensation for energy 

(1) Abundance of food; bulky rather than fine 

(2) Abundance of sleep 



ADOLESCENCE — PHYSICAL 165 

Corrections and habituations 

(1) Formal gymnastics 

(2) Manual occupations 

(3) Athletics 

(4) Musical instruments 



REFERENCES 
Popular 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
Chap. XIII, "The Golden Age of Transition" 

King, Irving — The High School Age: 

Chap. II, " Physical Changes of the High School 

Years " ; 
Chap. Ill, "Physical Development and School Effi- 
ciency " 

Latimer, Caroline W. — Girl and Woman: 

Chap. I, "Physical Disturbances of Girlhood"; 
Chap. V, "Menstruation"; 
Chap. VIII, "Personal Hygiene"; 
Chap. IX, "Bodily Functions" 

Starr, Louis — The Adolescent Period: 

Chap. I, "Growth and the Development of Muscle 

Power"; 
Chap. II, "Physical Education"; 
Chap. Ill, "The Diseases of Adolescence"; 
Chap. V, "Menstruation" 

Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 90-91 

Non-Technical 

King, Irving — The Psychology of Child Development: 
222-225 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 216-226 



166 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Slaughter, J. W. — The Adolescent: 

Chap. I, "General Survey of the Period"; 

Chap. II, "Growth and Other Physical Changes"; 

Chap. VII, "Pathology and Hygiene" 

Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: 

Chap. I, "Growth in Height and Weight"; 
Chap. II, "Parts of Organs During Adolescence"; 
Chap. Ill, "Growth of Motor Power and Function"; 
Chap. IV, "Diseases of Body and Mind"; 
Chap. IX, "Changes in the Senses and the Voice" 
Youth: 
Chap. I, " Preadolescence " ; 
Chap. II, "The Muscles and Motor Powers in 

General"; 
Chap. Ill, "Industrial Education"; 
Chap. IV, "Manual Training and Sloyd"; 
Chap. V, "Gymnastics"; 
Chap. VI, "Play, Sports, and Games" 

Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 
Chap. I, "A Preliminary Survey"; 
Chap. II, "General Characteristics of the Various 

Life Stages"; 
Chap. Ill, "The Body" 



38. ADOLESCENCE — EMOTIONAL 

The child's general satisfaction with himself and his 
surroundings gives way during adolescence under the 
pressure of a host of problems, difficulties, and malad- 
justments. From indifference to matters not immedi- 
ately related to pleasures and pains, he plunges into 
intense curiosity and self-consciousness, and into 
real though spasmodic concern with the standards of 
adults. Curiosity may show itself in a great variety 
of normal activities; but is also subject to ready per- 
version under unwholesome surroundings. And this 
applies to each of the impulses and interests that now 
come to the front. 

Satisfaction with routine and drill is replaced by 
restlessness, leading often to truancy and erratic 
action ; by doubts giving rise to religious disturbances, 
and by inability to concentrate for long upon any 
pursuit or undertaking. 

After being for years apparently content with 
activities and movements for their own sake, he sud- 
denly acquires new purposes and interest in special 
activities leading to definite results, whether in his 
play or in his work. The interest in other people 
becomes focused in friendship, and in loyalties to 
companions of his own choosing. In the same way the 
more or less habitual obedience and compliance with 
rules is replaced by a spirit of criticism and revolt 

167 



168 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

against authority, which usually means a selection of 
his own leaders and his own ideals of conduct. 

The delinquencies that become so marked at this 
period may be considered as the special manifestations 
of normal impulses in an environment that is radically 
different from the one in which these impulses had their 
origin. The restrictions which civilized life necessarily 
places upon the impulses may compel the child to find 
satisfying outlets of a kind that are not suited to social 
life, and as a result there appear lying, stealing, truancy, 
vagrancy, sexual perversions, and other distressing 
departures from healthy conduct. 

Opportunity for self expression along many lines, 
sympathy in the rapidly changing plans and ambitions, 
and full recognition of the child's right to his personality, 
should make the transition a happier one for all con- 
cerned. This is at any rate the "one chance to be a 
little of an artist, a little of a genius, a little of a hero " — 
if also to older eyes a little of a fool. But it is the folly 
of this period that bears all the potentialities and all 
the hope of something valuable and distinctive in the 
individual. 

The adolescent has many new desires, and stands in 
need of stimulation, inspiration, and information. He 
reaches out into the material world and takes to 
himself what he can. From in discriminating gathering 
of unattached objects he passes to systematic collecting 
with growing discriminations; in the ascending scale of 
values he passes from a prizing of material things for 
their own sake to an appreciation of wealth for more 
remote ends — or remains permanently arrested on a 
particular level of development. Romance and ad- 



ADOLESCENCE — EMOTIONAL 169 

venture make a special appeal and should have satis- 
faction partly in new experiences, travel, etc., partly 
in the substitutes furnished by literature, the theater, 
etc. 

There is equal need for an outlet to release the 
tensions and to yield the satisfactions of making an 
impression upon the persons and things of the environ- 
ment. A variety of media in the arts and crafts, op- 
portunity for oral and written expression, will divert 
from the temptation to indulge in direct action upon 
the person of a weaker associate. Varying degrees of 
intimacy in personal contacts are required — from the 
friend and confidant to the gang or club; and the 
opposite sex should be met in social games, play, and 
dancing. Opportunity for leadership and initiative, 
for exhibition of prowess and attainment, and for 
development of chivalry and the more generous im- 
pulses should be a normal part of the surroundings. 

The final need of the period is for integration. 
While this need should be constantly kept in mind, there 
is danger of pushing it too hastily to a finish, before all 
the usable elements have had time to appear or develop. 
On the one hand, there is danger of a fixed character, 
narrowly limited in its sympathies, its appreciations, 
its visions; on the other hand, a failure to find a nucleus 
about which purpose and growth may be organized — 
dissipated versatility leading nowhere. In the former 
case early maturity and arrested growth, with perhaps 
effectively directed but specialized ability; in the 
latter case, eternal youth, perhaps, but never a forceful 
focusing of character. 

Self-discovery is to be considered not some mystic 



170 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

finding of a finished personality that lies concealed 
within the growing child. It must be a positive, 
creative process, a synthesis of many elements, a 
joining together more or less deliberately of the scattered 
interests of adolescence, into a coherent and harmonious 
system of ideals and purposes and habits. 



OUTLINE 

1. NEW INTERESTS AND IMPULSES 

a. Sex-consciousness 

b. Curiosity, basis of intellectual pursuits 

c. Self-consciousness 

d. Social interests 

e. Creative impulse 

f. Relation to authority 

g. Delinquencies 

2. THE NEEDS OF THE PERIOD 

a. Impression (Resources for feeding emotional hunger) 

(1) Acquisitiveness, collecting 

(2) Romance and adventure, travel, literature, 

theater 

(3) Curiosity 

b. Expression (Outlet for emotional energy) 

(1) Creative activities; arts and crafts; dramatics 

(2) Companionship; friendship, club, social gath- 

erings, dancing 

(3) Leadership; group activities and projects 

(4) Service; outlet for chivalry, generosity, charity 

c. Guidance 

(1) In self-discovery 

(2) In appreciation 

(3) In formation of ideals 

d. Rest 

(1) Solitude and quiet 

(2) Time to digest and assimilate 



ADOLESCENCE — EMOTIONAL 171 

3. ATTITUDE OF ADULTS 

a. Considerateness 

b. Sympathy through intimate understanding 

c. Encouragement 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Allen, Anna W. — Boys and Girls: 

Atlantic Monthly, CXXV, 796-804, June, 1920 

Betts, Geo. H. — Fathers and Mothers: 

Chap. X, "Passing Over from Childhood" 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
Chap. XIII, "The Golden Age of Transition" 
Sons and Daughters: 75-78 

Healy, W. — Mental Conflict and Misconduct: 
Chap. II, "General Principles"; 
Chap. Ill, "Applications", 69-75 

King, Irving — The High School Age: 

Chap. VII, "The Birth of a New Self"; 

Chap. VIII, "Characteristic Phases and Dangers of 

the New Self"; 
Chap. IX, "The High School Period in Retrospect" 

Latimer, Caroline W. — Girl and Woman: 

Chap. Ill, "The Moral Disturbances of Girlhood" 

Starr, Louis — The Adolescent Period: 

Chap. IV, "The Faults and Criminal Tendencies of 
Adolescence" 

Non-Technical 

King, Irving — The Psychology of Child Development: 225- 
233 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 226-250 



172 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Slaughter, J. W. — The Adolescent: 

Chap. Ill, "Normal Development of the Instincts 

and Emotions"; 
Chap. IV, "Adolescent Love"; 
Chap. VIII, "Juvenile Crime and Its Treatment" 

Stedman, Henry R. — Mental Pitfalls of Adolescence: 

Medical and Surgical Journal, CLXXII, 695-713, 
November, 1916 

Swift, E. J. — Mind in the Making: 

Chap. II, "Criminal Tendencies of Boys: Their 
Cause and Function" 
Youth and the Race: 
Chap. I, "The Spirit of Adventure"; 
Chap. II, "The Way of Youth" 

Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 

Chap. VI, "Emotion, or the Capacity to Feel"; 
Chap. XI, "The Appreciation of Beauty in Nature 
and Art" 

Waddle, Charles W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 
243-250 

Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Viewpoint of a Be- 
haviorist: 415-418 

Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: 

Chap. V, "Juvenile Faults, Immoralities and 

Crimes"; 
Chap. VIII, "Adolescence in Literature, Biography, 

and History"; 
Chap. X, "Evolution of the Feelings and Instincts 

Characteristic of Normal Adolescence"; 
.Chap. XV, "Social Instincts and Institutions" 



ADOLESCENCE — EMOTIONAL 173 

Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene: 
Chap. VII, "Faults, Lies, and Crimes"; 
Chap. VIII, "Biographies of Youth"; 
Chap. IX, "The Growth of Social Ideals"; 
Chap. XII, "Moral and Religious Training" 



39. ADOLESCENCE — INTELLECTUAL 

The curiosity that appears on the intellectual plane 
as a desire for knowledge, explanation, and understand- 
ing, is a special phase of the basic trend that shows 
itself in physical restlessness and discomfort, automatic 
movements, and in apparently aimless manipulations. 
And it manifests itself emotionally as a romantic 
sentiment, a discontent with the immediate surround- 
ings, a desire for adventure, and impossible day- 
dreams. 

The mind of the adolescent is rapidly expanding and 
seeks knowledge of more than can possibly be learned 
at first hand; hence an increase in the amount of 
reading, when reading is not too difficult; and hence an 
expansion in the range of subjects read. Information 
thus obtained at second hand, through reading, lectures, 
visits to museums, and so on, is readily absorbed, but 
should of course be considered as supplementary to 
first hand experience in the fields and woods, in the 
shop, and laboratory and studio. Indeed, the effective 
absorption of a considerable amount of such second- 
hand imagery and abstraction will depend upon the 
extent of the direct, concrete experience to which it 
may be attached. 

There is a searching further for aid in formulating 
experience, with a certain readiness, in spite of the 
critical attitude, to accept plausible or well com- 
mended authorities on the wisdom of the race. There 

174 



ADOLESCENCE — INTELLECTUAL 175 

should be every opportunity, therefore, to become 
acquainted with what the best and wisest have thought 
and said. Yet narrow or sectarian indoctrination 
should be scrupulously avoided, whether in religion or 
in politics, whether in art or in business. 

The academic activities of the adolescent should in 
the earlier years consist of the accumulation of informa- 
tion, with little attempt at interpretation. Progres- 
sively there should come increasing analysis and 
organization. By analogy with the earlier develop- 
ment of the large muscles, and the later use of the small 
ones, the studies should deal at first with the broader 
outlines; details and precision may be expected only 
after specialized interests have begun to show them- 
selves. 

In general the studies of the high school period 
concern themselves with an understanding of social 
relations, as distinguished from the acquisition of 
habits of conventional conduct necessary for social 
adjustment. There should be a study of the indi- 
vidual's place in the community; the reciprocal rights 
and duties need now to be understood as well as 
exercised; the discovery of types of service that are 
worth while socially and that are at the same time 
satisfying modes of self-expression; the formulation of 
principles; a study of the meanings to be found in 
nature and in human experience. 

These considerations should furnish the guide in the 
selection of studies, as well as in the methods of treat- 
ment: nature, especially in its organic aspects, with a 
matter-of-fact study of sex and reproduction; social 
sciences, the structure and functions of the civilized 



176 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

community and of the family; the dynamics or evolu- 
tion of institutions — a study of history, that is, which 
indicates how we have come to our present state of 
affairs; human achievement in the lives of men and 
women of the past worth knowing; human nature, not' 
so much in formal psychology, as in drama and fiction ; 
interpretation through poetry and essays, serving as an 
introduction to religious and philosophical literature. 

In the infantile stage our curiosity, or hunger for 
knowing, is but the desire for the satisfactions that 
come from sensations. It appears not only in the 
incessant questionings, but also as prying into closed 
spaces, the playing of hide-and-find games, in distorting 
the vision by pressing the eyeball, and in peering from 
between the fingers. On the sublimation of curiosity, 
see No. 38 Curiosity. 

OUTLINE 

1. EXPANSION OF INTERESTS 

a. Eagerness for novelty 

b. Omniverous intellectual appetite 

c. Superficial and transitory of necessity 

2. SHIFTING OF INTELLECTUAL ATTITUDE 

a. From facts to meanings 

b. From authority to reason 

c. From convention to criticism 

3. NEW INTEREST IN ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE 

a. From classification of materials to classification of 

ideas 

b. Search for systems 

c. Integration of knowledge into principles 



ADOLESCENCE — INTELLECTUAL 177 

4. SEX DIFFERENCES 

a. Girls develop earlier 

b. Boys seek explanations earlier 

c. Differentiation of "How?" from "Why?" questions 

5. SELECTION OF STUDIES 

a. Freedom in range of reading 

b. Opportunity to sample all fields of intellectual ac- 

tivity 

c. Acquaintance with basic groups of studies 

(1) Language 

(2) Sciences — natural and social 

(3) Achievement — history and biography 

(4) Interpretation — literature, criticism, and in- 

troduction to philosophy 

d. Thinking and inspiration as well as information 

e. Danger of early specialization 

6. IMPLICATION AS TO METHODS 

a. Increasing freedom of choice 

b. Increasing challenge to thought 

c. Increasing opportunity for initiative and experimen- 

tation 

d. Encouragement of self-reliance 

REFERENCES 

Popular 
King, Irving — The High School Age: 

Chap. V, "The Mental Changes of the Teens; the 

Earlier Years"; 
Chap. VI, "The Broadening Vision" 
Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 

Chap. IX, "Later Adolescence" 
Stout, J. E. — The High School: 

Pt. I, Chap. II, "Factors Determining Function of 

the High School"; 
Chap. VIII, "Education of Girls"; 
Pt. II, Chap. XI, "The Social Studies" 



178 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Swift, E. J. — Mind in the Making: 

Chap. I, "Standard of Human Power" 

Non-Technical 

Dewey, J. — How We Think: 12-13; 

Chap. Ill, "Natural Resources in the Training of 

Thought"; 
Chap. IV, "School Conditions and the Training of 

Thought"; 
Chap. V, "The Means and End of Mental Training; 

the Psychological and the Logical" 

Holmes, A. H. — Principles of Character Making: 255-263 

Monroe, Paul — Principles of Secondary Education: 248- 
250, 257, 287-310 

Norsworthy and "Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 154- 
159, 182-183, 292-294 

Parker, S. C. — Methods of Teaching in High Schools: 

331, 360; 
Chap. IX, "Reflective Thinking"; 
Chap. XIII, "Influence of Age on Learning"; 
Chap. XIV, "Interest, the Basis of Economy in 

Learning' ' 

Slaughter, J. W. — The Adolescent: 

Chap. V, "Scepticism: The Period of Storm and 
Stress"; 

Chap. VI, "Unification: The Philosophical Psycho- 
sis"; 

Chap. IX, "Education of Boys During Ado- 
lescence"; 

Chap. X, "Education of Girls During Adolescence" 
Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 

Chap. IV, "The Mind: General Treatment"; 

Chap. VII, "Intellect, or the Capacity to Think"; 



ADOLESCENCE — INTELLECTUAL 179 

Chap. X, "Intellectual Education and School 

Work"; 
Chap. XI, "The Education of Girls"; 
Chap. XIV, "The Pedagogy of Adolescence" 

Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: 

Vol. II; Chap. XVI, "Intellectual Development 

and Education"; 
Chap. XVII, "Adolescent Girls and Their Educa- 
tion" 
Youth: 
Chap. X, "Intellectual Education and School 

Work"; 
Chap. XI, "The Education of Girls" 



40. COEDUCATION 

The traditional separation of boys and girls during 
their schooling rested upon the different status of men 
and women. With increasing access to economic 
opportunities, education of girls was gradually ex- 
tended until arbitrary restrictions are no longer toler- 
ated. The separation of the sexes in educational insti- 
tutions, wherever it exists, is at present justified on the 
ground of native and permanent differences between 
the sexes, requiring a differentiated treatment of boys 
and girls. 

Although the development of public schools for all 
children compelled coeducation in the lower grades 
for reasons of economy, this method has been in- 
creasingly adopted in secondary and higher schools on 
the ground that it best serves the major aims of educa- 
tion. At present, approximately ninety per cent of the 
children in secondary schools of this country are in 
coeducational institutions; and about two thirds of 
the young women attending colleges and universities 
are in coeducational institutions. 

The opposition to coeducation for high school and 
college grades rests upon differences in the rate of 
development between the sexes, differences in physical 
endurance, danger of social distractions, and need for 
differentiating studies. On the other hand, coeduca- 
tion is not only more economical from an administrative 
viewpoint, but it promotes cooperation and democracy 

180 



COEDUCATION 181 

between the sexes, trains in necessary social inter- 
course, and diminishes sexual immorality. 

The tendency in all education is to widen oppor- 
tunity for differentiated studies adapted to needs of 
various groups or individuals. Accordingly, coeduca- 
tion of the sexes need not mean an identical program 
of studies, or identical methods of instruction for all. 
It means merely that a large part of the child's experi- 
ence is to be shared with other children — including 
those of the opposite sex. This permits at every stage 
endless adjustments in accordance with the needs of the 
individual and in accordance with the needs of various 
groups, including boys or girls. 

OUTLINE 

1. HISTORICAL 

a. Schools for boys only 

b. Admission of girls to school 

c. Establishment of schools for girls 

d. Distinction between elementary and higher education 

2. PRESENT USAGE 

a. In the United States 

(1) City and country 

(2) Eastern and Western regions 

(3) Elementary and higher schools 

(4) Public and private schools 

b. In other countries 

(1) England and Scotland 

(2) France 

(3) Germany 

(4) Sweden 

(5) Italy 

(6) Canada and Australia 



182 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

3. OPPOSITION TO COEDUCATION 

a. Sexes develop unevenly from 11th to 15th year 

b. Boys suffer from competition with girls in secondary 

school period 

(1) Precocity of girls 

(2) Self-confidence of girls 

c. Social life may become too intense 

d. Girls predominate in high school, making boys lose 

interest in studies and leave school 

e. Intensive work too severe for girls in higher grades 

f. Girls fail to develop certain finer feminine qualities 

g. Boys fail to develop certain virile qualities 

h. Differentiation of studies according to physical, cul- 
tural, vocational, and social needs is retarded 

4. ARGUMENTS FOR COEDUCATION 

a. It is more economical 

b. It makes for equality and democracy 

c. It promotes capacity for cooperation 

d. It makes for better mutual understanding, and for 

a wholesome disillusionment 

e. It diminishes immorality 

f. It increases mutual respect on intellectual level 

g. It facilitates acquisition of ease in social intercourse 
h. It makes for development of more flexible types of 

school administration 

5. PRESENT TENDENCIES 

a. Extension of secondary school organization into lower 

grades 

b. Recognition by schools of responsibility for meeting 

wider range of needs — physical, vocational, civic, 
cultural 

c. Increasing opportunities for individualized or other 

differentiated program in composite schools 

d. A school for all the children, but not treating all alike 



COEDUCATION 183 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Dewey, John — 7s Coeducation Injurious to Girlsf 

Ladies' Home Journal, XXVIII, 22, June, 1911 

Finck, Hervey T. — Why Coeducation is Losing Ground: 
Independent, LV, 301, 361, February 5, 12, 1903 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 58 

Monroe, Paul — Encyclopedia of Education: 
Article on "Coeducation" 

Patterson, Herbert P. — The Logical Problem of Coedu- 
cation: 
Education, XXXVII, 112-115, 1916 

Rice, Richard, Jr. — The Educational Value of Coeducation: 
Independent, December 5, 1912 

Slosson, E. E. — Coeducation from Another Standpoint: 
Independent, LV, February 12, 1903 
(An answer to the Finck article) 

Woods, Alice, Editor — Advance in Coeducation: 
Articles by various authors 

Non-Technical 

Angell, James R. — Some Reflections upon the Reaction 
from Coeducation: 
Popular Science Monthly, LXII, 5-28, 1902 

Armstrong, J. E. — The Advantages of Limited Sex Segre- 
gation in the High School: 
School Review, XVIII, 338-350, 1910 

Draper, Andrew — Coeducation in the United States: 

Educational Review, XXV, 109-129, February, 1903 

Gale, Zona — What of Coeducation? 
Atlantic Monthly, July, 1914 



184 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Hall, G. Stanley — Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and 
Hygiene: 286-297 

Jordan, David Starr — The Care and Culture of Men: 71-90 

King, Irving — The High School Age: 220-224 

Anonymous — Coeducation and Marriage: 

Journal of Heredity, VIII, 43, January, 1917. 

Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: II, 617-647 
Educational Problems: II, 586-593 

Harper, Ida H. — The Permanency of Coeducation: 
Independent, LV, March 12, 1903 

Thomson, Helen B. — The Mental Traits of Sex 



41. CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION 

Most people do not choose occupations; they drift 
into jobs. And for most people the job is not a 
fulfillment and satisfaction of natural and legitimate 
cravings, but a necessary and disagreeable grind. 
For the normal child, the first need is an opportunity to 
become acquainted with the kinds of work that the 
world needs to have done — not merely in an academic 
sense, but through direct contact and concrete sampling 
of the activities and experiences that make up the 
work. In the next place he needs to acquire an attitude 
of workmanship, of interest in and desire for work — 
work as activity, as means of self expression, and as 
instrument of service. And finally, he must get a 
set of standards or criteria of values with respect to 
work — what the world has a right to demand of the 
worker, and what the worker has a right to expect from 
the work and from the world in return. In each of 
these three aspects of the child's adjustment to the 
problem of finding his occupation, the child is in- 
fluenced by the material and the spiritual surround- 
ings, whether at home or in school, or in the com- 
munity at large. 

In practice, the child's work should normally be an 
outgrowth of his play and study. Every day the new 
experiences actually serve to discover new interests and 
capacities, and there is a gradual selection influenced by 
the satisfactions derived from the various experiences, 

185 



186 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

by the approval or disapproval of teachers and parents 
and fellows, by the esteem in which the representatives 
of various callings are held in the community, by the 
outward and visible signs of social grace which these 
representatives manifest. The interests of the child 
show a progression corresponding to intellectual and 
emotional development, but determined as to form by 
what he sees going on around him. With this progres- 
sion there should be a differentiation that eventually 
leads to the selection of main lines of activity. While 
the interest in a specialized activity is valuable in 
focusing application and effort, the "life career motive" 
should not be overworked, since it is undesirable to 
force early specialization. On the other hand, the 
interests manifested at any given time, whether in 
being a policeman or an Indian chief, may properly be 
employed to further the establishment of those ideals or 
habits that constitute the distinctive virtues of the 
calling in question. 

In the choice of an occupation, as in the evolution 
of ideals, the child is influenced by his reading, the 
pictures he sees, the conversations he overhears, and by 
obscure flows of feeling, at least as much as by the 
explicit and deliberate teachings of elders. In the 
same way, too, choice may be influenced by defects or 
by exceptional acuteness of one or another sense organ, 
by timidities or fears or curiosities acquired early in life. 
A frustration with a resultant stimulation of effort, 
an inferiority complex with a resultant attempt at 
compensation, may become factors in the choice of 
occupation. 

By attempting to use forethought and intelligence 



CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION 187 

we can unquestionably get better results than arise from 
the policy of drift. But there is danger in attempting 
to obtain short cuts, whether through the premature 
specialization of training, or through some esoteric 
determination of ability — phrenology, palmistry, 
astrology and other weird cults are always ready to 
serve. On the other hand, increasing knowledge of the 
significant factors in the unfolding of ability will give 
us progressively better insight into the individual 
child, and systematic tests of various kinds are becom- 
ing daily more useful in detecting limitations and 
capacities. But in the end concrete performance in a 
variety of activities will serve most helpfully in deter- 
mining what boys and girls can or can not do well. 

OUTLINE 

1. WHAT AN OCCUPATION IS TO THE INDIVIDUAL 

a. A body of specialized activities 

b. A means of self-expression 

c. A means for gaining recognition or approval 

d. A means of rendering service 

e. A source of income 

2. IMPORTANCE OF VOCATIONAL ADJUSTMENT 

a. Economy of adequate distribution of workers 

b. Contribution to happiness of individuals 

c. Danger of invidious stratification of occupations 

3. VOCATIONS AND HUMAN TALENTS 

a. There is no necessary correlation between talents and 

socially needed services 

b. There is no necessary correlation between a child's 

admirations and his abilities 

c. The genius finds a new way of doing useful things 

d. Mediocrity can follow suit 

e. Social changes eliminate occupations and make way 

for new ones 



188 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

4. THE CHILD'S NEED FOR SELF-DISCOVERY 

a. An acquaintance with the kinds of work the world 

needs to have done through actual work experi- 
ence 

b. An interest in and desire for work 

c. Standards of value with respect to work 

(1) Social or ethical justification 

(2) Its contribution to the worker 

(3) Its demand upon the worker — physically, 

spiritually, socially 

5. THE PROCESS 

a. Self-revelation and development through play 

b. Transition from play to work 

c. Progressive differentiation of interests and preferred 

activities — in play, in work, in study, through 
the action of 

(1) Inherent factors of sensitiveness and capacities 

(2) Models for imitation 

(3) Approval or disapproval of teachers and parent 

(4) The community's esteem for types of service 

or personality, or mode of living 

(5) Suggestion from reading, etc. 

(6) Deliberate guidance 

(7) Personal limitations and emotional reactions 

6. STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE 

a. Danger of short cuts and charlatanism 

b. Danger of early specialization 

c. School and home observations 

d. Records of changing tastes, interests, preferences, etc. 

e. Systematic tests 

(1) Psychological 

(2) Scholastic 

(3) Specialized trade tests, etc. 

f. Try-out experiences in school and industry 

g. Use of life-career motive and other sources of stimu- 

lation 



CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION 189 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 

Second Series, 243-253, "Children's Ambitions" 

Filene, Catherine — Careers for Women 

Hoerle and Saltzberg — The Girl and the Job 

Non-Technical 

Allen, F. J. — Guide to the Study of Occupations 

Bloomfield, Meyer — Readings in Vocational Guidance: 
"Selecting Young Men for Particular Jobs" (Her- 
man Schneider) 

"Charting Children in Cincinnati" (Helen Thomp- 
son Woolley) 

Brill, A. A. — Fundamental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis: 
Chap. XIII, "Selection of Vocations" 

Gowin and Wheatley — Occupations 

Technical 
Bloomfield, Meyer — Readings in Vocational Guidance 
Brewer, J. M. — The Vocational Guidance Movement 



42. TRAINING IN SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 

The child acquires the feeling of responsibility 
gradually. The burden should be graded to correspond 
to his ability to bear it, and should be steadily increased. 
The feeling, as distinguished from habits of punctuality, 
promptness, orderliness, and so on, arises from associa- 
tion with others, from sympathy, and from the imagin- 
ative participation in the effects upon others of the 
various activities in which the children share. 

Home responsibilities begin with the care of toys 
and clothing, with helping in minor tasks, with con- 
sideration for the routine of the establishment involving 
other members of the household, with caring for 
younger brothers and sisters, and with being relied 
upon to help the elders occasionally or regularly. 
School responsibilities begin with punctuality, which is 
primarily a social virtue, having to do with time values 
of others and with the routine of a group. 

In relation to other children on the playground, 
social responsibility arises out of the feeling of fair play, 
out of consideration for the rights of others, and out of 
the idea of non-interference which playground experi- 
ence develops. In organized groups involving team- 
work, excursions, camping, and so on, the feeling of 
responsibility acquires wider scope. The more pro- 
gressive schools, both elementary and high, in all parts 
of the country, are giving children increasing oppor- 
tunity to share in the responsibility of the regular 

190 



TRAINING IN SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 191 

class work as a social project. The so-called "socalized 
recitation" partakes of a great variety of forms, but 
always seeks to furnish the children actual practice in 
the social virtues, especially responsibility. 

In addition, however, to making good followers who 
acknowledge authority and accept leadership as neces- 
sary for safety, coordination of effort and progress, we 
need further to develop that higher level of responsi- 
bility which challenges authority when occasion arises, 
which questions routine and rules. Democracy re- 
quires that children, after learning to follow the rules, 
learn further that rules are convenient devices for 
facilitating human relations and procedure, and that 
we are answerable for improving upon the rules or even 
for overthrowing them. The responsibility for leader- 
ship is quite as urgent as that for followership. 

In general, the feeling of responsibility, once well 
started grows with the child's experience in social 
relationships. As the child feels himself a member of a 
larger and larger group or community, his responsi- 
bility will be transferred to the members of the larger 
group, or to the group as a whole; and conversely, his 
feeling of the larger group will grow with the experience 
which he shares with members in the larger relationship. 
The problem is to make the child conscious of himself 
in his capacity of group membership, or to feel himself 
as the representative of the group, so that his decisions 
and attitudes can be justified in terms of the general 
need or welfare. This end can be reached only through 
much and varied experience in different social relation- 
ships, through inspiring examples of conduct manifest- 
ing the desired attitudes, and through guidance in the 



192 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

formulation of those ideals and general principles 
that mark the highly evolved types of social and moral 
adjustment. 

OUTLINE 

1. WHAT THE HOME MUST TEACH 

a. Orderliness 

(1) Things must be in their place, or we shall suf- 

fer; toys, clothing, furniture, and appliances 
in the room 

(2) People must be in their places on time, or we 

shall suffer; the routine of the household 

b. Kindness 

(1) Helpfulness makes us all happier 

(2) Attitude toward paid helpers 

(3) Hospitality toward strangers within the house, 

visitors 

c. Considerateness 

(1) Keeping engagements 

(2) Carrying out instructions 

(3) Sharing in work 

(4) Finding the purpose, not merely the words or 

rules 

(5) Reliability of word or promise 

2. APPLICATION AND GROWTH IN THE SCHOOL 

a. Punctuality required by orderliness and considerate- 

ness 

b. Observation of routine necessary for the protection of 

individual rights 

c. Recognition of authority or leadership necessary for 

(1) Safety (e.g., fire drill) 

(2) Expedition 

(3) Progress 

d. Questioning of routine and rules necessary for de- 

mocracy 

(1) Rules and regulations as empirical devices 

(2) Rules subject to change with conditions; with 

inventiveness and improvements 



TRAINING IN SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 193 

(3) Responsibility of individual toward improve- 
ment of rules, etc. 
e. Sharing responsibility 

GROWTH AND APPLICATION AT PLAY 

a. Non-interference, from experience with grabbing and 

jostling of others 

b. Fair play, from experience with unfairness of others, 

and with the group's penalties for unfairness 

c. Teamwork, from experience in joint enterprises and 

later from games involving division of labor or 
special functions 

GROWTH AND APPLICATION IN THE COMMUNITY 

a. The thoroughfare: open to all, used by all, the con- 

cern of all 

(1) To maintain 

(2) To keep clean 

(3) To use considerately 

b. Parks, playgrounds, etc.: these, too, are ours, for 

joint use involves mutual obligations of consid- 
erateness 

c. Public gatherings, theater, concert, etc. : principle of 

non-interference 

d. Attitude toward strangers; general courtesy; help to 

those seeking directions, information, etc. 

e. Public spirit: the call of the community for help 

f. I am my brother's keeper 

METHODS 

a. Manifestation of attitude on part of parents, teachers, 

etc. 

b. Interpretation of difficulties and demands, rather than 

inculcation of mottoes, etc. 

c. Aid in formulation of ideals and general principles, 

on basis of experience and discussion 

d. Opportunity for participation in home activities 

e. Organization of joint activities in school 

(1) For school service 

(2) For community service 



194 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

f. Training in parliamentary procedure in clube, school 
classes, etc. 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Berle, A. A. — The School in the Home: 

Chap. VII, "Mental Self-Organization" 

Bloomfield, M. — Vocational Guidance of Youth: 109-116 

Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 107-108 

Hood, M. G. — For Girls and the Mothers of Girls: Chap. 
XXV-XXVIII 

Hughes, James L. — FroebeVs Educational Laws: 154-178 

Latimer, C. — Girl and Woman: 

Chap. Ill, "Moral Disturbances of Girlhood" 

Non-Technical 

Adler, Felix — The Moral Instruction of Children: 

Chap. XIII, "Duties Which Relate to Others"; 
Chap. XIV, "Duties toward All Men"; 
Chap. XV, "The Elements of Civic Duty" 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: Second Series, 62-70, 
203-217 

Chance, Mrs. Burton — Self-Training for Mothers: 
Chap. VIII, "Responsibility" 

Oppenheim, N. — The Development of the Child: 

Chap. VII, "The Value of the Child as a Witness in 

Suits at Law"; 
Chap. VIII, "The Development of the Child Crim- 
inal" 

Richmond, Ennis — The Mind of a Child: 56-65 



TRAINING IN SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 195 

Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 

Chap. VI, "Nature versus Nurture" 

Technical 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 
171-174 

Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 

Chap. IX, " Self -Consciousness and the Social 
Order" 



43. RELIGIOUS TRAINING 

Religion plays an important role in the development 
of the personality and character of the child. Yet it is 
impossible at the present time to formulate either a 
definition of religion or a program of religious training 
that would be acceptable to the majority of adults, 
whether professional students of the subject or mere 
laymen. 

On the one hand we find theories of right and wrong 
closely tied up with religious views, traditions and 
conventions. On the other hand we find religious 
theories intimately associated with theologies and with 
speculations concerning the ultimate meaning and 
nature of man and the universe. 

It has seemed best, therefore, to present the most 
helpful reference books on the psychology of religion 
and on religious training, leaving it to the individual 
and the group to adapt the deep thought and the 
scientific study which these books represent to their 
own needs. 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Abbott, Ernest H. — On the Training of Parents: 
Chap. VI, "The Beginning of Wisdom" 

Forbush, W. B. — The Coming Generation: 

Chap. VII, "The Religious Life of the Child"; 
Chap. XXXII, "The Larger Nurture" 

196 



RELIGIOUS TRAINING 197 

Hartshorne, Hugh — Childhood and Character 

Peabody, Francis G. — The Religious Education of an 

American Citizen: 
Chap. I, "The Religious Education of an American 

Child"; 
Chap. II, "The American Boy and His Home" 

Non-Technical 

Adler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children: 

Chap. I, "Problem of Unsectarian Moral Instruc- 
tion" 

Dawson, G. E. — The Child and His Religion 
Hall, G. Stanley — Educational Problems: 

"The Religious Training of Children" 
Haviland, Mary S. — The Religion of a Child: 

Pt. VII, "Character Training in Childhood" 

Heathcote, Charles William — The Essentials of Religious 
Education: Chap. VI-X 

James, William — Varieties of Religious Experience 

Ladd, George T. — The Child and Religion (Edited by- 
Thomas Stephens) : 
Chap. Ill, "The Child's Capacity for Religion" 
Norsworthy and Whitley — The Psychology of Childhood: 
Chap. XIII, "Sequent Tendencies; Moral and Re- 
ligious Development" 

Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 
Chap. XIII, "The Religious Life" 

Technical 

Coe, George A. — Education in Religion and Morals: 
Pt. II, "The Child"; 

Chap. XXII, "Education and Religious Present 
Problems " 



198 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

The Psychology of Religion: 

Chap. XIX, "The Religious Nature of Man" 
A Social Theory of Religious Education 

Leuba, James — Psychological Study of Religion: Pt. Ill, 
Chap. X 

McDougall, W. — Social Psychology: Chap. Ill, V-VI 



44. CIVIC INTERESTS 

Civilization is an outgrowth of man's irresistible 
gregariousness, which compels him either to learn to 
get along passably well with others, or to withdraw 
from the society of others. The process of learning 
begins almost with birth, but it is not always continued 
to the point of making a person both an independent 
spirit and an acceptable member of a highly complex 
community — two ends that are indispensable if life 
is to be entirely satisfying. Through his contacts 
with others the child eventually discovers himself as a 
distinct personality, and then he proceeds to attach 
those others to himself and to make them his own in a 
very real sense. 

From the common experiences with those nearest 
him, he comes to identify himself with them; he is 
sensitive to their approval, their rebukes, their indiffer- 
ence; and to get from them the most satisfying reac- 
tions, he is willing to do what will please them, he learns 
the meaning of service. 

As the child extends the circle of his acquaintances 
from his immediate family to other children and adults 
in his surroundings, to the school, the gang, the neigh- 
borhood, and as he learns of the larger community of 
his city, state and the human race, it is necessary for 
him to enlarge his sympathies proportionately, if he is 
not to remain an outcast hermit, or a partially socialized 
gangster, or a narrow provincial. The gang is im- 

199 



200 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

portant in cultivating certain social virtues of attitude 
and conduct; the large community is essential for 
broadening and harmonizing the interests and impulses. 

In infancy and early childhood the suggestibility of 
the child unconsciously and automatically accepts the 
leadership of the adults; but as the child comes to be 
aware of himself and to experiment with himself, he 
becomes disposed to challenge arbitrary authority; and 
unless completely repressed, will persist in his resistance 
to tyranny, whether of the parents or of the school, 
whether of the local bully or of the political usurper. 
In a democracy the child should always have before 
him the opportunity to choose his associates and his 
leaders, if only for experience in sampling human 
beings for his purposes. 

Even young children have sufficient feeling for 
regularity and order to accept the idea of a rule or a 
law as guide to conduct; and from infancy this can be 
well cultivated through a fairly rigid routine in the 
details pertaining to personal health, sleeping, eating, 
etc., etc. Children readily accept rules of a game and 
it is important for them to learn that while existing 
rules are to be obeyed, both laws and rules are practical 
devices to facilitate human affairs, not to interfere; 
and that laws, like rules, are subject to change by 
established methods, as changing human needs dictate. 

Much of the "lawlessness" and of the anti-social 
spirit found in youth, especially in the larger cities, 
may be avoidable through more thorough and effective 
schooling. But we must not overlook the fact that 
much of it is simply a reflex of the prevailing attitude 
of homes and of prominent members of the community, 



CIVIC INTERESTS 201 

whose glaring violations of the welfare of others are not 
always followed by the traditional wages of sin. We 
cannot expect the children to be any better than the 
rest of the community. We cannot expect the school 
to counteract altogether the prevailing ideology. We 
cannot expect the teachers to produce any substantial 
change in the attitudes of the rising citizenry without 
the wholehearted and energetic support of the rest of 
the community, or at least of its more influential frac- 
tion. 

OUTLINE 

1. RELATION OF INDIVIDUAL TO OTHERS 

a. Early interest of child in other people 

b. Discovers himself because of others 

c. Forms attachments to most intimates 

d. Necessity for learning to adjust 

2. DEVELOPMENT OF SOLIDARITY 

a. Community interest with own people 

b. Identifying self with own people 

c. Desire to get approval and to please 

d. Desire to serve 

3. EXPANSION OF GROUP 

a. From family, to neighborhood, etc. 

b. Extension to school 

c. The socializing effect of the gang 

d. Need for progressive expansion of sympathies and 

interests 

4. RELATION TO LEADERSHIP 

a. Suggestibility of child 

b. Tendency to form personal attachments 

c. Resistance to tyranny 

d. Experience in selection of leaders 



202 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

5. FROM PERSONALITY TO LAW 

a. Child's love of regularity and regulation 

b. Rules of the game 

c. Respect for law vs. fear of law 

6. CIVIC ATTITUDE 

a. Reflection of home and community 

b. Teachings of school 

c. Public spirit 



REFERENCES 

Popular 

Gould, F. J. — A National Need, the Civic Spirit in Educa- 
tion 

Moore, H. H. — The Youth and the Nation: 

Chap. IV, "Should the Youth Enlist?" 
Chap. V, "Choosing of Life Work"; 
Chap. VI, "Preparation for Life Work" 
Our Complex Civilization and the Genius of Youth: 
School Review, XXIX, 617-627, October. 1921 

Sharp, D. L. — Patrons of Democracy: 

Atlantic Monthly, CXXIV, 649, November, 1919 

Non-Technical 

Beard, C. A. and M. R. — American Citizenship 

Dunn, A. W. — Citizenship in School and Out: 
Introduction, 1-23 

Technical 

Dunn, A. W. — Civic Education in Elementary Schools 

Hall, G. Stanley — Educational Problems: II, Chap. XXIV, 
"Civic Education" 



45. THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — DEFICIENT 

Every child is in a sense exceptional. Nevertheless 
our studies of variations among children would never 
lead to any practical results if we did not accept as 
normal those children who show only slight deviations 
from the average. Over half the children, approxi- 
mately sixty per cent, may be classed as normal in the 
sense that they depart from the theoretical average to 
an extent that does not raise problems of a special kind. 
The rest of the children depart in varying degrees from 
the normal in one or several respects involving special 
consideration or treatment. We must recognize that 
this is not a theoretical matter at all, but one purely of 
satisfactory adjustment of the child to the world in 
which he has to live. It is only because the program 
which is fairly satisfactory for the average child fails 
in practise to meet the requirements of a particular child 
that this child is considered exceptional. The use of 
tests is to facilitate diagnosis and to expedite adjust- 
ment, not to discover what we would rather not know. 

The most obvious shortcomings are those of a 
physical nature — defective vision and hearing, crip- 
pled limbs, speech defects. Children with these short- 
comings should not be segregated, since they need to 
learn early in life how to live with normal people. This 
does not mean that they should be treated precisely as 
are the normal children in the schoolroom. Obviously 
a nearsighted child or one hard of hearing should have 

,203 



204 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

a front seat. When these defects are so serious as to 
constitute total blindness or deafness, it is necessary to 
provide separate classes in an ordinary school, so that 
these handicapped children may have the opportunity 
of mingling with normal children on the playground, 
etc. Of course, remediable defects call for specific treat- 
ment quite apart from the educational service supplied 
to the handicapped child. There are many minor 
deficiencies which are important in causing mental or 
educational retardation, and children who suffer from 
them require specialized treatment. 

The chief cause of retardation or backwardness is 
mental deficiency, of which there are many degrees 
calling for different kinds of treatment. Children 
below normal in mental capacity are classified as 
idiotic where the mentality does not develop beyond 
the two or three year level, and as imbecile where it 
reaches to the two to seven year level. Such children 
can best be cared for in institutions and should be sent 
there no matter what apparent advantages the home 
may offer. It is important for parents to realize that 
their children are much happier surrounded by com- 
panions of their own age and mental development, 
and in an environment which does not demand too 
much for them. 

The most difficult problem is that of the " moron " — ■ 
the person whose mentality lies approximately between 
the ages of seven and twelve. For the sake of the child 
as well as of society, it is important that morons be 
recognized and that their capacities and limitations be 
understood. There are as many varieties among 
morons as among normal individuals. With care, a 



THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — DEFICIENT 205 

useful place in society can be found for each. What 
this place is to be must be determined by individual 
study on the part of specialists. It must never be 
forgotten that these children are entitled to special 
supervision since they present problems with which 
their parents are usually unable to cope. 

In regard to all mentally deficient children, it may 
be said that while we cannot improve their mentality, 
we have reached the point where, by a recognition of 
their capacities and limitations, we can so place them 
in our social scheme that they may lead happy and 
useful lives. But for the prevention of their multi- 
plication, as well as for their protection against dangers 
of many kinds, the feeble-minded should be permanently 
under custodial supervision. 

OUTLINE 

1. WHAT IS NORMAL? 

a. Absolute standards 

b. Statistical standards 

c. Social standards 

d. Pedagogical standards 

2. PHYSICAL HANDICAPS 

a. Blindness 

b. Deafness 

c. Deformity and physical inferiorities 

3. REMEDIABLE OR PREVENTABLE CONDITIONS CAUSING RE- 

TARDATION 

a. Poor eyesight 

b. Poor hearing 

c. Infected tonsils 

d. Adenoid growths 

e. Bad teeth 

f. Speech defects 



206 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

g. Chronic infections — chiefly 

Tuberculosis 

Syphilis 
h. Malnutrition 
i. Cardiac deficiencies 

4. FEEBLEMINDEDNESS 

a. Causes — usually hereditary 

b. Grades 

(1) Idiot 

(2) Imbecile 

(3) Moron 

c. Basis for differentiating 

(1) Development 

(2) Performance 

(3) Special tests 

5. NERVOUS AND PSYCHOPATHIC 

a. Epileptic 

b. Psychotic 

c. Unstable 

6. DISPOSITION AND TREATMENT 

a. Value of early recognition 

b. Clinic study and treatment 

c. Distinction between permanent and curable defects 

d. Segregation for treatment 

(1) Medical or surgical 

(2) Pedagogical 

e. Permanent custodial care for feebleminded 

(1) For sake of the individual 

(2) For sake of the community and the race 

REFERENCES 
Popular 
Atres, Leonard P. — Laggards in Our Schools: 

Chap. XI, "Physical Defects and School Progress" 
Campbell, C. Macfie — Nervous Childrenand Their Training: 
Mental Hygiene, III, 16-23, January, 1919 



THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — DEFICIENT 207 

Dearborn, Walter F. — Facts of Mental Hygiene for 
Teachers: 
Mental Hygiene, III, 11-15, January, 1919 

Goddard, H. H. — Feeblemindedness, Its Causes and Conse- 
quences: 
Chap. I, "Social Problems"; 
Chap. X, "Practical Applications " 

Groszmann, M. P. E. — The Exceptional Child: 

Chap. XXIII, "General Provisions for Variations 

from Type"; 
Chap. XXIV, "Provisions for Exceptional Children 

in Schools and Institutions" 

Holling worth, Leta S. — Psychology of Subnormal Chil- 
dren 

Morgan, T. — The Backward Child 

Patri, Angelo — The Child Who Fails: 

Red Cross Magazine, XV, 35-39, February, 1920 

Woodrow, H. W. — Brightness and Dullness in Children: 
Chap. I, "Introduction"; 
Chap. II, "The Measurement of Intelligence"; 
Chap. Ill, "Brightness and Dullness"; 
Chap. V, "Physical Defects" 

Wright, John Dutton — What the Mother of a Deaf Child 
Ought to Know 

Non-Technical 

Blanton, Margaret and Smiley — Speech Training for 
Children: 
"The Hygiene of Speech" 

Bronner, Augusta F. — Psychology of Special Abilities and 
Disabilities 

Cameron, Hector C. — The Nervous Child 



208 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Holmes, Arthur W. — The Conservation of the Child: 
Chap. V, "Classification of Clinical Cases"; 
Chap. VI, "Method of Classification of Clinical 

Cases" 

Lapage, C. Paget — Feeblemindedness in Children of School 
Age 

Technical 

Goddard, H. H. — Psychologtj of the Normal and Subnormal 

Healy, William — The Individual Delinquent: 447-589 

Kelyneck, T. N. — Defective Children 

Tredgold, A. F. — Mental Deficiency: 

Chap. I, "The Nature of Mental Deficiency"; 
Chap. VIII, "Feeblemindedness in Children"; 
Chap. XVIII, "Mental Tests and Case Taking" 

Wallin, J. E. W. — Problems of Subnormality : 

Chap. I, "Changing Attitude Toward the Sub- 
normal"; 
Chap. IV, "The Problem of the Feebleminded in 
Its Educational and Social Bearings" 
The Mental Health of the School Child: 
Chap. XIV, "The Relation of Oral Hygiene to Effi- 
cient Mentation in Backward Children"; 
Chap. XV, "Methods of Measuring the Ortho- 
phrenic Effects of the Removal of Physical Handi- 
caps" 
Handicapped Children: 

American Journal of School Hygiene, IV, 29-53, 
September, 1920 



46. THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — 
DELINQUENT 

The children and adults whose conduct does not 
meet with the requirements of social living have been 
explained in a variety of ways. According to some, the 
delinquent represents a heritable type of personality, 
or a person whose misconduct is directly or indirectly, 
due to physical defects of constitution, to acquired 
disease, or to mental deficiency. It is true that the 
delinquents show a large proportion of physically and 
mentally deficient personalities, and that mental and 
physical deficiencies are inherited; but it is very 
questionable whether the theory of a criminal type 
can be established. At most it may be said that 
certain types of personality find it difficult to adjust 
themselves to life in a complex society, and that near 
the limits these types do not adjust themselves at all. 

It is found more helpful to-day to consider delin- 
quency as a mode of conduct resulting from defective 
development of the child's system of habits and feelings. 
The failure to acquire the desired habit may be due to 
shortcomings in the environment or to forces acting 
to distort or pervert the behavior into undesirable 
forms. Accordingly, the problem becomes one of 
preventing delinquency, rather than of segregating 
the criminal or delinquent types early in life, or of 
penalizing those whose way of living is repugnant to 
the common sense and interests of the community. 

209 



210 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Among the more common forces making for delin- 
quency are adverse home conditions — such, that is, as fail 
to provide the child at each stage with adequate oppor- 
tunities for self expression and with adequate guidance. 
The growing child must acquire a technique of control 
of materials and forces, including those of his own 
body, whereby he may duly impress those around him 
in a way that brings satisfaction and approval. 
Whether this technique is acquired through work or 
play, through schooling or self directed activities, it is 
essential that it takes forms which are socially accept- 
able. The alternative is a spontaneous or fortuitous 
discovery of methods for obtaining the needed satisfac- 
tions, and these methods constitute the delinquent 
conduct in most cases. Not alone suitable recreational 
opportunities, but the companionship of adults and 
other children, and exposure to inspiring and stimulat- 
ing forces, such as books and pictures, speakers and 
theaters, churches and community celebrations, must 
play a part. In many cases, too, delinquency repre- 
sents a mode of behavior that is quite normal at an 
earlier stage, but not suited to the more developed 
stages of living; it is a sort of arrested development, a 
retention of infantile standards and ideals and habits 
that should be outgrown. 

The restoration of a young person from a delinquent 
mode of life to one that is socially and mentally normal 
involves first, a separation from the earlier environment 
with its accustomed stimulations and suggestions to 
ebjectionable conduct, and second, a retraining that 
will establish self confidence and self respect, chiefly 
by means of activities that permit the acquirement of a 



THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — DELINQUENT 211 

satisfying control over the self and over the environ- 
ment. Institutional care may prevent further delin- 
quency, but to be of lasting value it must aim at 
restoring the individual to normal life in accordance 
with his special needs and limitations. 

OUTLINE 

1. WHAT IS DELINQUENCY? 

a. The delinquent as a type of human being 

(1) Criminal type theory 

(2) Relation to physical defects 

(3) Relation to mental defects 

b. Delinquency as a mode of conduct 

(1) Meaning of maladjustment 

(2) Specific sources or direction of maladjustment 

Persons 

School 

Special objects or activities 

(3) Importance of early years 

2. PREVENTION OF DELINQUENCY 

a. Adverse home conditions 

b. Need for opportunity for self-expression 

(1) Impulses must find outlet 

(2) Personality must impress environment 

(3) Play and work 

c. Companionship of other children and of adults 

d. Sources of inspiration and stimulation 

e. Instruction and guidance 

3. REHABILITATION 

a. Isolation from early environment and "temptation" 

b. Opportunity for regaining self-confidence and self- 

respect 

(1) Recreation and social contacts 

(2) Experience with success 

(3) Retraining 

c. Shortcomings of institutional methods 



212 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Addams, Jane — Spirit of Youth and the City Streets 

Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 

First Series, "A Bad Girl's Story," 107-109 

Swift, E. J. — Mind in the Making: 

Chap. II, "Criminal Tendencies in Boys" 

Non-Technical 

Goddard, Henry H. — Juvenile Delinquency 

Kenworthy, Marion E. — The Logic of Delinquency: 
Papers and Proceedings American Sociological 
Society, XVI. 1922 

Miner, J. B. — Deficiency and Delinquency: 

Chap. X, "Bad School Adjustment as a Cause of 

Delinquency"; 
Chap. XI, "Deficiency as a Cause of Delinquency" 

Taft, Jessie — Some Problems in Delinquency : Papers and Pro- 
ceedings American Sociological Society, XVI. 1922 

Thurston, Henry W. — Delinquency and Spare Time 

Technical 

Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: 

Chap. V, "Juvenile Faults, Immoralities and 
Crimes" 

Healy, William — The Individual Delinquent: 
Bk. I, General Data 



47. THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — SUPERIOR 

Some children show very early in life general or 
special abilities of a high order, and continue for many 
years in advance of others of the same age. In some 
cases, however, the early ripening of ordinary ability 
leaves the child at adolescence a disappointing medi- 
ocrity, because so much is commonly expected of him. 
It is difficult ordinarily to distinguish these two types 
of precocity, although there is some evidence to link 
the latter form with some abnormality in the glands of 
internal secretion. In any case, precocity need not of 
itself cause alarm, since it is quite compatible with 
both physical health and mental balance. Where it 
represents high degree of native ability, the hereditary 
factor is probably prominent; but we must remember 
that "intelligence" is not a "unit" character, depending 
on a single germinal determinant, but rather the 
resultant of many hereditary elements. 

Occasionally children appear that are for the most 
part indistinguishable from their fellows, except for a 
single outstanding talent. The excessive development 
of this will create the impression and produce the effect 
of high ability, even where the other capacities are 
decidedly below the average. The cultivation of 
special talents will of course depend upon the capacities 
and interests of the child, as well as upon external condi- 
tions that make such cultivation of value. There 
must be some prospect of compensation or approval to 
warrant the efforts required by high specialization. 

213 



214 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

The recognition of ability, whether general or 
special, is becoming increasingly important for both 
the individual and the community. Genius is some- 
times suspected where there is nothing but a specialized 
technique of self-assertiveness or some nervous dis- 
turbance. It is probable, however, that in many 
cases a high degree of development is attained as a 
result of overtraining or overcompensating for some 
real or imaginary defect. The child of exceptional 
ability will show his departure from the ordinary first 
through the delicacy of sense perception and discrimina- 
tion, then by accuracy of muscular coordination, later 
by the activity of his imagination, and in the highest 
reaches by ability for abstract thinking and critical 
reaction to suggestions that come to him. Mental 
tests have not yet been refined to the point of giving us 
prompt and certain indications of genius in very young 
children, but as far as they have gone, they are of 
decided value in diagnosing the more common useful 
capacities. 

It often happens that the exceptional child of 
superior ability needs more than ordinary attention to 
his health, since he is likely to be easily overstimulated. 
He should of course have free access to every usable 
avenue of self expression, that he may early discover 
effective media in which to work and play; and he 
should have the advantage of association with satisfying 
and stimulating companions. This will mean in many 
cases that children of superior ability should be segre- 
gated for portions of their time, both in school and in 
some of their play, in order that their educational 
progress may be commensurate with their abilities. 



THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — SUPERIOR 217 

Henry, Theodore S. — Classroom Problems in the Education 
of Gifted Children: 
Nineteenth Yearbook National Society for the Study 
of Education, Pt. II 

McDonald, R. A. F. — Adjustment of School Organization to 
Various Population Groups 

Race, Henrietta V. — A Study of a Class of Children: 

Journal of Educational Psychology, IX, 91-98, 1918 

Terman, L. M. — The Intelligence of School Children: 

Chap. X, "Some Facts About Fifty-Nine Superior 
Children" 

Whipple, Guy M. — Classes for Gifted Children 



48. MENTAL HYGIENE 

The mental health of adults depends upon a com- 
plete unification of the physical, emotional and intel- 
lectual forces of the individual; its foundation must be 
laid in childhood — or rather, it is a process which 
must be initiated in childhood and maintained con- 
tinuously. While the energies available for this in- 
tegrating process depend decidedly upon the physical 
organism, the health of the latter is in turn influenced 
by the mental and emotional disturbances. The unity 
of spirit is both a means of successful coping with the 
problems of life, and a condition for getting from life 
its full measure of satisfaction. 

In order that we may better assist the child in the 
establishment of the essential mental habits, we must 
first understand the common urges and desires which 
dominate us all, and the processes by which these forces 
come to be both for the individual and for the race the 
means for the highest achievements. On the other 
hand, we must recognize the more common failures in 
adjustment, as they show themselves in even the 
youngest children. Escape from the hardships of 
reality through evasion of responsibility, through 
resort to the world of dream, through constant ex- 
planation or apology, through antagonism to the 
thinking commonsense of others, through an assump- 
tion of weakness, ignorance, incapacity, or through any 
other method, is always an indication of some dis- 

218 



MENTAL HYGIENE 219 

harmony between the various desires and impulses of 
the child. 

The task of parents and educators consists of 
insuring to the child means and opportunities for 
organizing and modifying the innate urges and cravings 
in such ways as will make possible satisfying self- 
expression and thereby both a development of his 
capacities and their concentration upon worthy objec- 
tives. 

OUTLINE 

1. IMPORTANCE OF MENTAL HYGIENE 

a. Relation to general health 

b. Relation to successful adjustment 

c. Relation to satisfaction with life 

2. COMMON SYMPTOMS OF MALADJUSTMENT 

a. Shirking of personal responsibility 

b. Escape from reality to fantasy or day-dreaming 

c. Overrationalization of conduct 

d. Persistent contrariness 

e. Manifestations of inferiority or suspicions 

3. NEEDS OF CHILD AT VARIOUS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

The general need is for the conditioning of instinctive 
or spontaneous activities into forms that are both 
satisfying to the individual and acceptable to 
society, or suitable for later development. 

a. Babyhood 

(1) Adjustment of self -preserving instincts 

(2) Adjustment of pleasure-pain or sex instincts 

b. Pre-school period 

(1) Conflict of instinctive cravings with adjust- 

ment to family relationship 

(2) Necessity for establishing standard habits 



220 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

c. Pre-adolescent period 

(1) Development of social attitude 

Toward other members of the family 
Toward playfellows 
Toward other people 

(2) School adjustments 

Evaluation of individual capacities and in- 
terests 
Recognition of individual limitations 
Opportunity for successful achievement 

d. Adolescent period 

(1) Organization and unification of energies of in- 

dividual with group interests and ideals 

(2) Aid to adjustment through self-understanding 

(3) Recognition of possible sources of conflict 

REFERENCES 
Popular 

Abbott, E. Stanley — Program for Mental Hygiene in the 
Public Schools: 
Mental Hygiene, IV, 320-330, April, 1920 

Blanchard, Phyllis — The Adolescent Girl 

Cameron, H. C. — The Nervous Child 

Campbell, Macfie C. — Nervous Children and Their 
Training: 
Mental Hygiene, III, 16-23, January, 1919 

Dearborn, Walter F. — Facts of Mental Hygiene for 
Teachers: 
Mental Hygiene, III, 11-15, January, 1919 

Gesell, Arnold — Mental Hygiene and the Public School: 
Menial Hygiene, III, 4-10, January, 1919 

Stern, Adolph — Parent and Child: 

American Medicine, New Series, XIII, 145-151, 
March, 1918 



MENTAL HYGIENE 221 

Non-Technical 

Miller, H. Crichton — The New Psychology and the Teacher 

Richards, Esther L. — Some Adaptive Difficulties Found in 
School Children: 
Mental Hygiene, IV, 331-363, April, 1920 
The Role of the Situation in Psychopathological Con- 
ditions: 
Mental Hygiene, V, 449-467, July, 1921 

Stedman, Henry R. — Mental Pitfalls of Adolescence: 

Medical and SurgicalJournal, CXXXII, 695-713, 
November, 1916 

Strecker, E. A. — Mai-Behavior Viewed as an Out-Palient 
Mental and Nervous Clinic Problem: 
Mental Hygiene, V, 225-238, April, 1921 

White, William A. — Childhood: The Golden Period for Men- 
tal Hygiene: 
Mental Hygiene, IV, 257-267, April, 1920 

Technical 

Bronner, Augusta F. — The Psychology of Special Abilities 
and Disabilities 



49. MENTAL TESTS 

Mental tests are being increasingly used with 
children owing to the realization that through their 
use one can gain, in a short time, unbiased information 
of a very definite nature regarding the child's mentality. 

About 1903, Alfred Binet devised the first practical 
test for obtaining the measure of a child's general 
intelligence. His big contribution to the subject was 
the standardization of tests according to chronological 
age of normal children. Binet made no attempt to 
differentiate the various types of ability. These tests 
were found to fill such a vital need that they have been 
revised for use in many countries, and are still in 
general use. The generally accepted American revision 
is Terman's, 1916. 

Terman's efforts were directed toward standardiz- 
ing the tests for use among American children from 
three years of age upward. For this purpose over ten 
thousand children were tested. These tests are now 
used in many schools and in all psychological clinics 
for preliminary classifications. By this means children 
can be divided according to their mentality into 
normal, subnormal, and supernormal. Although the 
tests do not pretend to throw light on anything but 
general intelligence, they do give some information as 
to memoiy, language ability, general information, etc. 
This information, however, is so meager that it is useful 
only as a guide for further testing. 

222 



MENTAL TESTS 223 

Reliable as such tests are for evaluating general 
intelligence, it is well to remember that they should 
always be supplemented by additional tests for special 
abilities. 

There are tests for mechanical ability, for language 
ability, for general information, for learning ability, 
for apperception, for musical ability, etc. Of all tests 
of this type, Seashore's tests for musical ability have 
been most completely worked out. 

Special ability tests should enable us to predict the 
type of work for which the child is best suited, where 
there is a decided talent or limited general ability. 

Both General Intelligence and Special Ability tests 
can be called Capacity Tests; in contrast to these, we 
have Achievement Tests. The latter should be used 
in all schools as a means of ascertaining progress in 
each study. By their u?e comparisons can be made 
between teachers, methods of teaching, and the effects 
of varying school conditions such as length of period, 
ventilation, etc. 

These Achievement Tests can be given by teachers 
with little or no special training. The General Intelli- 
gence and Special Ability Tests require both training in 
test giving, and a grounding in psychological principles. 

It is recognized that in many cases various obscure 
physical and emotional factors seriously influence the 
child's performance even under favorable outward 
conditions; accordingly, the interpretation of "Intelli- 
gence Quotient" and other findings should be left to 
experts. 

Helpful as the mental test has proved itself to be, 
many new and better tests will surely be developed in 



224 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

the years to come, especially those dealing with the 
volitional and emotional side of life. 

OUTLINE 

1. USES 

a. For adjustment of individual's progress 

b. For classification of groups in schools and institutions 

2. HISTORY AND PRINCIPLE 

a. Basis of Binet's tests 

b. Terman revision 

c. Army tests 

3. TYPES OF ABILITY TESTS 

a. Language 

b. Manipulation and mechanical 

c. Learning ability 

d. Musical 

e. Mathematical 

4. EDUCATIONAL TESTS 

a. Material 

b. Standard 

5. LIMITATIONS OF TESTS 

a. Correlation of various abilities 

b. Relative values 

c. Emotional factors 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Downey, June E. — Standardized Tests and Mental Inher- 
itance: 
Journal of Heredity, IX, November, 1918 

Gillingham, Anna — The Bright Child in the School- 
Journal of Educational Psychology, X, 237-252, May- 
June, 1919 



MENTAL TESTS 225 

Seashore and Others — Mentality Tests: A Symposium: 
Journal of Educational Psychology, VII, 163-167, 
229-240, 278-286, 348-360, 1916-1917 

Starch, Daniel — Educational Psychology 

Terman, L. M. — Intelligence of School Children: 

Chap. I, "Some Principles of Intelligence Testing"; 
Chap. XII, " Intelligence Tests in Vocational and 
Educational Guidance" 

Woodrow, H. W. — Brightness and Dullness in Children: 
Chap. II, "The Measurement of Intelligence" 

Non-Technical 

Bronner, Augusta F. — The Psychology of Special Abilities 
and Disabilities 

Dewey, Child, and Ruml — Methods and Results of Testing 
School Children: Pt. I 

Hollingworth, Leta S. — Psychology of Special Disability 
in Spelling 

Seashore, C. E. — Psychology of Musical Talent 

Technical 
Downey, June E. — Will-Temperament and Its Testing 
Pintner and Paterson — A Scale of Performance Tests 
Starch, Daniel — Educational Measurements 
Terman, L. M. — The Measurement of Intelligence 
Whipple, G. M. — Manual of Mental and Physical Tests 
Whipple, G. M., Editor — Intelligence Tests and Their Use 



50. THE FESTIVAL IN THE CHILD'S 
EDUCATION 

The festival always represents a joint enterprise that 
involves planning and preparation, that arouses the 
disposition for display, and that finds a special occasion 
or pretext, or purpose. Occasions may be furnished by 
patriotic, religious, historical or even purely senti- 
mental or mythical anniversaries or events. The 
purpose may be frankly that of insuring a good time 
for the participants and their friends, or it may include 
some remoter beneficence, such as the gathering of 
funds for some worthy cause or philanthropy. 

There are various forms which such joint under- 
takings may assume, as theatrical performance, pagean- 
try, pantomime, "minstrel show," a bazaar, or country 
fair. There is usually an element of the carnival spirit 
in the preparations for the festival, whatever the 
eventual form may be, and that is one of the valuable 
features from an educational viewpoint. 

In spite of being a joint enterprise, the festival offers 
excellent opportunities for the discovery and display of 
individual capacities. Although it is usually a very 
deliberate and elaborately prepared affair, it gives 
children excellent opportunities for spontaneity. And 
while it is designed to make impressions upon others 
than the participants, it is an excellent vehicle for self- 
expression. The elaborateness of the plans are limited 
only by the talents and resourcefulness of the children. 

226 



FESTIVAL IN CHILD'S EDUCATION 227 

Everything that they learn by way of schooling, and 
everything they can do in the way of inventing and 
designing and executing, whether in form and color or 
in materials and music, finds an outlet in this type of 
"play." 

The social side of the training comes from the need 
for cooperation and teamwork, from a conscious divi- 
sion of labor with the consequent need for giving each 
participant due regard for his services, from the mani- 
festation of differentiated abilities calling for admiration 
and appreciation. Some of the individual gains appear 
in increased seljf -confidence and poise, improved speech, 
experience in organization and in the technical arts 
involved in the production. 

So great is the value of such experience for social 
and esthetic reasons as well as for the aid it gives in self- 
discovery, that every community should promote it 
through extra-school activities as well as encourage it in 
the schools. 

OUTLINE 

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FESTIVAL 

a. A joint enterprise 

b. For a special occasion or purpose 

c. Designed for display 

d. Involving preparation 

2. TYPES OF FESTIVAL WORK 

a. The play 

b. The pageant 

c. The pantomime 

d. The bazaar or its equivalent 



228 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

3. SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE APPLIED 

a. Art — designing and execution of 

(1) Posters 

(2) Invitations 

(3) Costumes 

(4) Scenery 

(5) Properties 

b. History 

(1) For details 

(2) For atmosphere 

c. English 

(1) Oral 

(2) Written 

d. Mathematics 

(1) Financing the project 

(2) Calculation of material, space, costs, etc. 

e. Business 

(1) Advertising 

(2) Organization 

(3) Management 

f. Music 

(1) Vocal 

(2) Instrumental 

g. Physical training 

(1) Posture 

(2) The dance 

4. VALUES TO THE INDIVIDUAL 

a. The testing of the abilities of self 

b. Means for self-expression 

c. Appreciation of talents in others 

d. Poise 

e. Better speech 

f. Experience in organization and cooperation 

g. Training in independent action 
h. Awakening of community spirit 

i. Appreciation of beauty in 

(1) Thought 

(2) Language 

(3) Music 



FESTIVAL IN CHILD'S EDUCATION 229 

(4) Color 

(5) Form 

(6) Movement 



REFERENCES 

Baker, W. — Dramatic Technique 

Bates and Ore — Pageants and Pageantry 

(Chapters on the structural elements, history, and 
subject-matter of a pageant; its organization, 
staging, etc.) 
Beegle and Crawford — Community Drama and Pageantry 
(Pictures of pageant stages and Greek pageant cos- 
tumes) 

Chubb, Percival — Festivals and Plays: 

Pt. VI, Chap. XXIII, "Dramatization in the 

Primary Grades, Types of Material, Pantomime "; 

Chap. XXIV, "Dramatization in Primary Grades, 

Dialogue, and Modified Pantomime"; 
Chap. XXV, "Development in the Middle School, 

Grades Four, Five, and Six"; 
Chap. XXVI, "Method of Work" 
Langerfeld, A. — The ^Esthetic Attitude 

Mackay, Constance D. — Costumes and Scenery for Ama- 
teurs 
(Pictures, and tells where to get patterns for cos- 
tumes for American pageantry; contains plates 
of all costumes from Indian days to the present) 

Needham, Mary M. — Folk Festivals: Their Growth and How 
to Give Them 
(Chapters on use of festivals in connection with 
children's games. Elementary treatment of popu- 
lar history, of familiar holidays and characters, 
such as May-day and Pierrot. Contains bibli- 
ography) 



230 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Taft, Linwood — The Technique of Pageantry 

Withington, Robert — English Pageantry: 

(Detailed study of elements of pageantry rooted in 
early customs of English life; extensive bibli- 
ography) 

Books on Folk Dancing 

Burchenal, Elizabeth — American Country Dances 
Dances of the People 

Crampton, C. Ward — Second Folk Dance Book 

Curwen. J. — Folk Dances of Europe 

Fletcher, Alice C. — Indian Games and Dances 

Lincoln, Jennette C. — Festival Dance Book 

Woodcraft Manual for Girls 



51. COOPERATION BETWEEN SCHOOL AND 

HOME 

For the more effective promotion of the common 
aims of school and home, and for the purpose of 
strengthening the service which each carries on of 
itself, it is desirable that parents and teachers cooperate 
more systematically than they have heretofore done. 
A mothers' club can do many things that will be helpful 
to the school, just as a teachers' association can do 
much to advance professional spirit and the technique 
of teaching and school management, and make the life 
of the teacher and pupils happier. But an association 
of parents and teachers will find to hand definite tasks 
to employ the resources and ingenuity of all who can 
or will give their services. 

It is desirable that through such an organization, 
whether formally conducted or not, the teachers and 
parents become thoroughly acquainted in the matters 
that concern them jointly, and with one another's 
problems and methods, with the possibilities and 
limitations. Among the common problems are those 
of securing promptness and regularity of attendance; 
the maintenance of standards of cleanliness and 
appearance; the reporting of illness; deciding upon 
legitimate excuses for school absences and detentions; 
and the interpretation of school reports. For each 
class in a school a closer and more intimate approach 
between the parents and the individual teachers should 

231 



232 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

do much to clear up misunderstandings, to adjust 
programs in accordance with individual needs, to 
improve working conditions both at home and in school. 
The school and home should recognize the need of 
calling in the expert for physical as well as mental 
problems. Parents and teachers should learn jointly 
to make use of the light the experts can throw on 
individual problems. This gives a valuable oppor- 
tunity for working and thinking together. 

A parent-teacher organization will find opportunity 
for exchange of services mutually beneficial. Individ- 
ual parents engaged in specialized occupations are 
increasingly bringing to the school the benefit of their 
experience in a form that is not only helpful as a 
contribution to " vocational guidance," but helpful as 
general information on conditions of life at home and 
abroad and on various aspects of scholarship and 
research. Groups of mothers, who generally have 
more time at their disposal, serve by organizing and 
guiding excursions from the school to points of historical 
or industrial interest, to farms or parks and museums, 
and to places that may serve purely recreational ends. 
Such groups may also help materially by obtaining 
various things for which the general school funds do 
not usually make provisions, ;^uch as pictures, phono- 
graphs and records, motion picture machines and films, 
additional books for the library, special pieces of 
apparatus, plant and animal material for nature study, 
the loan of materials for use in connection with various 
studies, and so on. Old costumes, furniture, utensils, 
manuscripts, pictures are often thus made available to 
the great enhancement of the interest in and effective- 



SCHOOL AND HOME 233 

ness of historical studies, geography, literature, biog- 
raphy, science, and so on. 

Both parents and teachers can come to recognize 
that while the home must retain its primacy in society, 
the school must assume responsibility for certain types 
of leadership since it is through the school that society 
transmits many of its new achievements and dis- 
coveries. Organized cooperation should provide a 
form of extension teaching whereby both parents and 
teachers may become acquainted with the progress of 
thought and research in fields related to the upbringing 
of children. Thus lectures may be arranged on 
psychological, social, economic and educational topics, 
conferences with leaders and specialists on various 
concrete problems, such as sex education, backward 
children, mental hygiene, vocational guidance, the 
selection of college, foreign languages, leisure time 
pursuits, educational value of athletics, and so on. 
With increasing leisure on the part of adults, and in- 
creasing complexity and perplexity of educational 
problems, there seems every reason for more of the 
community's thoughts and talents being directed to the 

work of the school. 

i 

OUTLINE 

1. THE COMMON PROBLEMS AND AIMS 

a. Best development of children 

b. Most favorable adjustment of children 

c. Economy of time and attention 

d. Financial aspects 

2. MUTUAL ACQUAINTANCE 

a. What teachers need to know about the homes 



234 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY ' ' 

b. What parents need to know about the school 

(1) Punctuality and attendance 

(2) Standards of cleanliness and appearance 

(3) Health supervision and reporting 

(4) Detentions and other penalties 

(5) Interpretation of reports 

(6) Legitimate absences and excuses 

c. What both need to know about particular children 

(1) Class-groups of parents 

(2) Adjustment of individual programs 

(3) Modification of requirements and attitudes 

3. EXCHANGE OF SERVICES 

a. What parents can bring to school 

(1) Specialized knowledge and experience 

(2) Additional services 

Help with excursions 
Luncheon service 
Entertainments 

(3) Supplementary material aid 

Loans of various materials 

Gifts 

Funds for special needs 

b. Use of school as continuation-education center for 

parents and teachers 

(1) Lectures 

(2) Conferences 

(3) Study groups 

REFERENCES 

Popular 

Adler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children: 

Chap. V, "The Moral Outfit of Children on Enter- 
ing School" 

Allen, Annie Winsor — Home, School, and Vacation: 1-21, 
54-65, 161-199 



SCHOOL AND HOME 235 

Allen, William H. — Civics and Health: 

Pt. 1, Chap. I, "Health, A Civic Obligation"; 
Pt. II, Chap. XI, "Nervousness of Teacher and 
Pupil" 
Dewey, John — Schools of Tomorrow: 

Chap. VII, "The Relation of the School to the 
Community" 
Forbush, W. B. — The Coming Generation: 178-187, 275-285 
Gillingham, A. — One Child's Struggle in the Preparation for 
Life: 
Pedagogical Seminary, XX, 343-359, 1913 
Griggs, E. H. — Moral Education: 101-113 
Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 

24-27 
Latimer, C. W. — Girl and Woman: 

Chap. IX, "Daily Life During School Days" 
McConaughy, James L. — The Home and the School 
Swift, Edgar J. — Mind in the Making: 

Chap. Ill, "The School and the Individual"; 
Chap. IV, "Reflex Neuroses and Their Relation to 
Development" 

Thaler, William H. — Modern Ideals of Child Behavior, 

and Their Influence on American Life: 

Education, XLI, 141-151, November, 1920 

Non-Technical 

King, Irving — The Psychology of Child Development: 

Chap. I, "Child Psychology, Its Validity and Aims " 

Technical 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
Chap. XVI, "Individuality"; 
Chap. XVIII, "Child Study Applied in Schools" 



236 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Pamphlets 

Study Programs — San Diego Federation of Parent-Teacher 
Associations, 1920-1921 

Organization Monograph — Parents and Teachers' Associa- 
tion, Ethical Culture School, New York 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Abbott, Ernest H. — On the Training of Parents; Hough- 
ton Mifflin, 1908 

Abbott, E. Stanley — Program for Mental Hygiene in the 
Public Schools; Mental Hygiene, IV, 320-330, April, 1920 

Adams, Morley — The Boy's Own Book of Pets and Hobbies; 
Religious Tract Society, London, 1912 
Toy Making in the Home; Jack, London 

Addams, Jane — The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets; 
Macmillan, 1909 

Adler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children; Appleton, 
1892 
The Punishment of Children; Reprint from Ethical Ad- 
dresses, Society for Ethical Culture, New York, April 
and May, 1898 

Allen, Annie Winsor — Boys and Girls; Atlantic Monthly, 
June, 1920 
Home, School, and Vacation; Houghton Mifflin, 1907 

Allen, F. J — Guide to the Study of Occupations; Harvard 
University Press, 1921 

Allen, William H. — Civics and Health; Ginn, 1909 

Angell, James Rowland — Some Reflections upon the Re- 
action from Coeducation; Popular Science Monthly, LXII, 
5-26, 1902 

Anonymous — Organization Monograph; Parents and Teach- 
ers' Association, Ethical Culture School, New York 

237 



238 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Study Program; San Diego Federation of Parent-Teacher 

Associations, 1920-1921 
A Selected List of Books for Children; Federation for Child 

Study, 1920 
A Young Girl's Diary; Seltzer, 1921 
Coeducation and Marriage; Journal of Heredity, VIII, 43, 

January, 1917 
What Scouts Do; Boy Scouts of America, 1913 
Scouting for Boys; Boy Scouts of America, 1913 
Boy Scouts of America; Boy Scouts of America, 1913 
Armstrong, D. B. and E. B. — Sex in Life: For Adolescent 

Boys and Girls; American Social Hygiene Association 

Armstrong, J. E. — The Advantages of Limited Sex Segre- 
gation in the High School; School Review, XVIII, 338- 
350, 1910 

Ayres, Leonard P. — Laggards in Our Schools; Survey 
Associates, 1913 

Bach, J. S. — Chorales (Selected by Bertha Elsmith and T. 

W. Surette) ; Boston Music Company 
Sacred Songs (Arranged by Wallner) ; Breitkopf and Hartel 
Bacon, Mary S. H. — Songs that Every Child Should Know; 

Grosset, 1915 
Bagley, W. C. — The Educative Process; Macmillan, 1913 

Baker, W. — Dramatic Technique; Harvard University 
Press 

Ballard, Anna Woods — The Direct Method and Its Appli- 
cation to American Schools; Educational Review, LI, 447- 
456, May, 1916 

Balliet, T. M. — The Domain of Art Education; National 
Education Association Addresses and Proceedings, 1916, 
493-496 

Barnes, Earl — Children's Ideals; Pedagogical Seminary, 
VII, 3-12, 1900 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 239 

Punishment as Seen by Children; Pedagogical Seminary, 
III, 235-245, 1894 

Studies in Education, Series I and II ; Author, Philadelphia, 
1897, 1903 

Bateman, W. G. — Some Western Ideals in the High School; 
Pedagogical Seminary, XXIII, 570-584, 1916 

Bates, Esther W. — Pageants and Pageantry; Ginn, 1912 

Beagle and Crawford — Community Drama and Pageantry; 
Yale University Press, 1916 

Beard, C. A. and M. R. — American Citizenship; Mac- 
millan, 1915 

Beard, Lina and Adelia — What a Girl Can Make and Do; 
Scribner, 1914 

Benedict and Talbot — Metabolism and Growth from Birth 
to Puberty; Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1921 

Berle, A. A. — The School in the Home; Moffat Yard, 1915 

Betts, George H. — Fathers and Mothers; Bobbs Merrill, 
1915 

Bigelow, Maurice A. — Sex Education; Macmillan, 1918 

Birnet, Mrs. Theodore — Childhood; Stokes, 1905 

Blanchard, Phyllis — The Adolescent Girl; Moffat Yard, 
1920 

Blanton, Margaret and Smiley — Speech Training for 
Children; Century, 1919 

Bloomfield, Meyer — Readings in Vocational Guidance; 
Ginn, 1915 
Vocational Guidance of Youth; Houghton Mifflin, 1911 

Bogardus, Emory S. — Essentials of Social Psychology; Uni- 
versity of Southern California Press, 1920 



240 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Bonser, Frederick G. — School Work and Spare Time; 
Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation, Pub. 
No. 28, 1918 

Bousefield, Paul — The Elements of Practical Psychology; 
Dutton, 1920 

Brewer, J. M. — The Vocational Guidance Movement; Mac- 
millan, 1916 

Brill, A. A. — Fundamental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis; 
Harcourt Brace, 1921 

Bronner, Augusta F. — Psychology of Special Abilities and 
Disabilities; Little Brown, 1919 

Brown, Warner — Individual and Sex Differences in Sug- 
gestibility; University of California Publications in Psy- 
chology, 1916 

Bruce, H. Addington — Handicaps of Childhood; Little, 
Brown, 1917 

Burbank, Luther — The Training of the Human Plant; 

Century, 1907 
Burchenal, Elizabeth — American Country Dances; Schir- 
mer, 1918 
Dances of the People; Schirmer, 1913 
Folk Dances; Schirmer, 1909 

Burk, Caroline Frear — Aspects of Child Life and Educa- 
tion (Hall and Smith): The Collecting Instinct; Re- 
printed from Pedagogical Seminary, VII, 179-207, 1900 

Bryant, Sara Cone — Stories to Tell to Children; Houghton 
Mifflin, 1907 

Cady, Calvin B. — Music Education; Summy, 1904 

Calvin, T. — Good and Bad Reasons for Studying Modern 
Languages in School; Modern Language Journal, V, Oc- 
tober, 1920 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 241 

Cameron, Hector C. — The Nervous Child; Oxford Medical 
Publications, 1919 

Campbell, C. Macfie — Nervous Children and Their Train- 
ing; Mental Hygiene, III, 16-23, January, 1919 

Cannon, Walter B. — Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, 
Fear, and Rage; Appleton, 1915 

Cartwright, Harriet G. — Song Treasury; Macmillan, 
1920 

Chalmers, Lillian H. — Studies in Imagination; Peda- 
gogical Seminary, VII, 111-123, 1900 

Chambers, W. G. — The Evolution of Ideals; Pedagogical 
Seminary, X, 101-143, 1903 

Chance, Maria S. B. — Self Training for Mothers; Lip- 
pincott, 1914 

Chubb and Associates — Festivals and Plays: Par! II, 
"Music in (he Festival" (Peter W. Dykema); Harper, 
1912 

Clapp, Henry Lincoln — The Development of Spontaneity, 
Initiative, and Responsibility in School Children; Educa- 
tion, XLI, 209-221, December, 1920 

Coe, Fanny E. — First Book of Stories for the Story Teller; 
Houghton Mifflin, 1910 

Coe, George A. — A Social Theory of Religims Education; 

Scribner, 1918 
Education in Religion and Morals; Fleming Revell 
The Psychology of Religion; University of Chicago Press, 

1917 

Comstock, Anna B. — Handbook of Nature Study for 
Teachers and Parents; Comstock, 1914 
The Pet Book; Comstock, 1914 



242 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Conklin, E. G. — Heredity and Environment in the Develop- 
ment of Man (Second Edition) ; N. W. Harris Lecture, 
1914; Princeton University Press, 1918 

Conradi, Edward — Speech Development in the Child; Peda- 
gogical Seminary, XI, 328-380, 1904 

Cornell, G. A. — Art in the Kindergarten; National Educa- 
tion Association Addresses and Proceedings, 1916, 307- 
310 

Coulter and Others — Heredity and Eugenics; University 
of Chicago Press, 1912 

Crampton, C. Ward — Second Folk Dance Book; Barnes, 
1915 

Crandall, Lee S. — Pets, Th:ir History and Care; Holt, 
1917 

Crile, G. W. — Man, An Adaptive Mechanism; Appleton, 
1916 

Curtis, Henry S. — Education Through Play; Macmillan, 
1917 
Th Boy Scouts; Educational Review, L, 495-508, 1915 

Curwen, J. — Folk Dances of Europe; Fischer 

Darw n, Charles — Life and Letters, I ; Appleton, 1903 

Davenport, Charles B. — The Feebly Inhibited: Nomadism 
or the Wand ring Impulse w'th Special Reference to 
He ed y; Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1915 
Violen' Tempe and Its Inherit nee: Eugenics Record 
Office, Bulletin No. 12, 1915 

Davison and Surette — Rote Songs; Boston Music Com- 
pany 

Dawson, G. E. — The Child and His Religion; University of 
Chicago Press, 1908 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 243 

Dearborn, Walter F. — Facts of Mental Hygiene for 

Teachers; Mental Hygiene, III, 11-15, January, 1919 
Dennett, Mary Ware — The Sex Side of Life; Author 
Dennett, Roger H. — Exercise and Diet in Relation to 
Growth; New York Medical Journal, XCVII, 756-759, 
1913 
The Healthy Baby (Revised Edition); Macmillan, 1922 

Dewey, Child, and Ruml — Methods and Results of Test- 
ing School Children; Dutton, 1920 

Dewey, John — How We Think; Heath, 1910 

Imagination and Expression; Teachers College Bulletin, 10, 

March, 1919 
Interest and Discipline; Houghton Mifflin, 1913 
Is Coeducation Injurious to Girls? Ladies Home Journal, 

June, 1911 
Psychology; American Book, 1891 

School and Society (Revised Edition"* ■ University of Chi- 
cago Press, 1915 

Dewey, John and Evelyn — Schools of Tomorrow; Dutton, 
1915 

Dickinson, George A. — Your Boy: His Nature and Nurture; 
Doran, 1909 

Ditman, N. E. — Home Hygiene and Prevention of Disease; 
Duffield, 1912 

Downey, June E. — Standardized Tests and Mental Inher- 
itances; Journal of Heredity, IX, 311-314, 1918 
Will-Temperament and Its Testing; World Book Co., 
1922 

Downing, E. R. — The Third and Fourth Generation; Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press, 1918 

Draper, Andrew — Coeducation in the United States; Edu- 
cational Review, XXV, 109-129, February, 1903 



244 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Drummond, Margaret — Five Years Old or Thereabouts; 
Arnold, 1920 

Drummond, W. B. — An Introduction to Child Study; Long- 
mans Green, 1912 

Dunn, A. W. — Citizenship In School and Out; Heath, 1919 
Civic Education in Elementary Schools; U. S. Bureau of 
Education, Bulletin No. 17, 1915 

East and Jones — Inbreeding and Outbreeding; Lippincott, 
1919 

Elliot, J. W. — Mother Goose Songs; M. Loughlin 

Ellison, L. — Children's Capacity for Abstract Thought as 
Shown by Their Use of Language in the Defini'ion of 
Abstract Terms; American Journal of Psychology, XIX, 
253-260, April, 1908 

Emerson, R. W. — Essay on Behavior; Houghton Mifflin 

Evans, Elida — The Problem of the Nervous Child; Dodd 
Mead, 1920 

Ewald, Carl — My Little Boy; Scribner, 1906 

Exner, Max J. — Problems and Principles of Sex Education; 
Association Press, 1915 

Farnsworth, C. H. — How to S'.udy Music; Macmillan, 
1920 

Field, Walter T. — Fingerposts to Children's Reading; 
McClurg, 1914 

Filene, Catherine — Careers for Women; Houghton Mif- 
flin, 1919 

Finck, Hervey T. — Why Coeducation is Losing Ground; 
Independent, LV, 301, 361, February 5, 12, 1903 

Fink, Henry T. — Fifty Masters Songs by Twenty Com- 
posers; Ditson, 1903 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 245 

Fisher, Dorothy — A Montessori Mother; Holt, 1912 
M others and Children; Holt, 1915 

Fisher, L. — Health Care of the Baby; Funk and Wagnalls, 
1915 
Heal'h Care of the Growing Child; Funk and Wagnalls, 1915 

Fletcher, Alice C. — Ind an Games and Dances; Birchard, 
1915 

Foerster, F. W. — Marriage and the Sex Problem; Stokes, 
1912 

Forbush, W. B. — Manual of Play; American Institute of 
Child Life, 1914 
The Boy Problem; Pilgrim Press, 1913 
The Coming Generation; Appleton, 1913 

•' Forel, August — The Sexual Question; Rebman 

France and Kline — Aspects of Child Life and Education 
(Hall and Smith) : The Psychology of Ownership; Re- 
printed from Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 421-470, 1899 

Frink, H. W. — Morbid Fears and Compidsions; Moffatt 
Yard, 1918 

Gale, Zona — What of Coeducation? Atlantic Monthly, July, 
1914 

Gallichan, Walter M. — Sex Education; Small Maynard, 
1921 

Galloway, T. W. — Biology of Sex for Parents and Teachers; 
Heath, 1913 

Galloway, T. W. — The Father and His Boy; Association 
Press, 1921 

Gardiner, Ruth Kimball — Your Daughter's Mother; Amer- 
ican Social Hygiene Association, 1921 

Garrett, Laura B. — Animal Families in School; Bureau 
of Educational Experiments, Bulletin No. 2 



246 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Gault, Robert H. — Suggestion and Suggestibility; Amer- 
ican Journal of Sociology, XXV, 185-194, 1919 

Geddes and Thomson — Sex; Holt, 1914 

Gesell, Arnold — Mental Hygiene and the Public School; 
Mental Hygiene, III, 4-10, January, 1919 

Gillingham, Anna — One Child's Struggle in the Preparation 
for Life; Pedagogical Seminary, XX, 343-359, 1913 
The Bright Child and the School; Journal of Educational 
Psychology, X, 237-252, May, June, 1919 

Gilman, Charlotte P. — Concerning Children; Small May- 
nard, 1900 

Goddard, Henry H. — Feeblemindedness, Its Causes and 
Consequences; Macmillan, 1914 
Juvenile Delinquency; Dodd Mead, 1921 
Psijchology of the Normal and Subnormal; Dodd Mead, 
1918 

Gould, F. J. — A National Need, The Civic Spirit in Edu- 
cation; Moral Education League, London, 1913 
Moral Instruction in Theory and Practice; Longmans Green, 
1913 

Gowin and Wheatley — Occupations; Ginn, 1916 

Griggs, Edward H. — Moral Education; Huebsch, 1916 

Groos, Karl — Play of Man; Appleton, 1901 
The Play of Animals; Appleton, 1898 

Groszmann, M. P. E. — The Exceptional Child; Scribner, 
1917 

Gruenberg, Benjamin C. — The Parent and Sex Education; 
I. Children Under School Age; American Social Hygiene 

Association, 1922 
High Schools and Sex Education; U. S. Public Health 

Service, 1922 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 247 

Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters; Holt, 1916 
Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow (Second Edition); 
Lippincott, 1920 

Gulick, Luther M. — Exercise and Rest; Russell Sage Foun- 
dation, Department of Child Hygiene 
Psychological, Pedagogical, and Religious Aspects of Group 
Games; Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 135-151, 1898 

Guyer, Michael — Being Well Born; Bobbs Merrill, 1916 

Hadow, W. H. — Songs of the British Islands; Cur wen 

Hall, Florence Marion — Boys, Girls, and Manners; 
Estes, 1913 

Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: Appleton, 1904 
A Genetic Study of Fear; American Journal of Psychology, 

XXV, 149, 1914 
Aspects of Child Life and Education; Appleton, 1921 
Educational Problem; Appleton, 1911 
Some Psychological Aspects of Teaching Modern Language; 

Pedagogical Seminary, XXI, 256-263, 1914 
Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene; Appleton, 

1914 

i 

Hall and Smith — Curiosity and Interest; Pedagogical Sem- 
inary, X, 314-358, 1903 

Hall and Wiltse — Children's Collections; Pedagogical 
Seminary, I, 234-237, 1891 

Hall and Others — Museums of Art and Teachers of His- 
tory; Scribner, 1913 

Handschin, C. H. — The Teaching of Modern Languages in 
the United States; U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 
No. 3, 1913 

Harper, Ida H. — Th° Permanency of Coeducation; Inde- 
pendent, LV, 606-608, March 12, 1903 



248 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Hartshorne, Hugh — Childhood and Character: An Intro- 
duction to the Study of the Religious Life of Children; 
Pilgrim Press, 1919 

Hartson, L. D. — The Psyihology of the Club; Pedagogical 
Seminary, XVIII, 353-414, 1911 

Harvey and Others — Imaginary Playmates; Author, 1918 

Haviland, Mary S. — The Religion of a Child; Small May- 
nard, 1921 

Healy, William — Mental Conflicts and Misconduct; Little 
Brown, 1917 
The Individual Delinquent; Little Brown, 1918 

Heathcote, Charles W. — The Essentials of Religious Edu- 
cation; Sherman French, 1916 

Heller, Harriet Hickox — Thumb-Sucking; American 
Institute of Child Life, Monograph No. 282, 1914. 

Henderson, C. Hanford — What Is It to Be Educated? 
Houghton Mifflin, 1914 

Henry, Theodore S. — Classroom Problems in the Education 
of Gifted Children; Nineteenth Yearbook National 
Society for the Study of Education, Pt. II, 1920, Public 
School Publishing Company, Bloomington, 111. 

Hichman, F. A. — Soft Toys and How to Make Them; Scott, 
1917 

Hills, D. S. — Comparative Study of Children's Ideals; 
Pedagogical Seminary, XVIII, 219-231, 1911 

Hodge, Clifton — Nature Study and Life; Ginn, 1902 

Hoerle and Saltzberg — The Girl and the Job; Holt, 1919 

Holling worth, Leta S. — Psychology of Special Disability 
in Spelling; Teachers College Contribution to Education, 
1918 
Psychology of Subnormal Children; Macmillan, 1920 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 249 

Holmes, Arthur — Principles of Character Making; Lippin- 
cott, 1913 
The Conservatism of the Child; Lippincott, 1912 

Holt, Edwin B. — The Freudian Wish; Holt, 1915 

Holt, L. Emmett — The Care and Feeding of Children; 
Appleton, 1920 

Holtz, Frederick L. — Nature Study; Scribner, 1908 

Hoobler, Raymond — Diseases Influencing Growth; New 
York Medical Journal, XCVII, 769-771, April 12, 1913 

Hood, Mary G. — For Girls and the Mothers of Girls; Bobbs 

Merrill, 1914 
Hough, Emerson — Out of Doors; Appleton, 1915 
Hubbell, L. E. — The Child and His Room; The House 

Beautiful, XLVII, 358-362, April, 1920 
Hughes, James L. — FroebeVs Educational Laws; Appleton, 

1897 
Hunt, Clara W. — W hat Shall We Read to Children? 

Houghton Mifflin, 1915 
Hurll, Estelle May — How to Show Pictures to Children; 

Houghton Mifflin, 1914 
James, William — Moral Equivalent of V/ar; Kindergarten 

Magazine, XXII, 291-294, 308-312, May, June, 1910 
Talks to Teachers; Holt, 1916 
Varieties of Religious Experience; Longmans Green, 1902 

Jennings, Watson, Meyer and Thomas — Suggestions of 
Modern Science Concerning Education; Macmillan, 1917 

Johnson, George E. — Education by Play and Games; 
Ginn, 1907 
Toys and Toy Making; Longmans Green, 1912 

Jordan, David Starr — Care and Culture of Men; Wagner 
Harr, 1917 



250 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Kedson and Neal — English Folk Song and Dance; Cam- 
bridge University Press 

Kelyneck, Theophiltjs — Defective Children; Wood, 1915 

Kent, Ernest B. — The Constructive Interests of Children; 
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1903 

Ken worthy, Marion E. — The Logic of Delinquency; 
Papers and Proceedings American Sociological Society, 
XVI, 1922 

Kerr, LeGrand — Care and Training of Children; Funk 
and Wagnalls, 1910 

Kilpatrick, William H. — Horace Mann Studies in Primary 
Education; Teachers College Record, March, 1919 
Project Method; Teachers College Record, October 12, 1918 

King, Irving — The High School Age; Bobbs Merrill, 1914 
The Psychology of Child Development; University of 

Chicago Press, 1903 
Social Aspects of Mental Development; Macmillan, 1912 

Kinne and Cooley — Clothing and Health; Macmillan, 1916 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study; Mac- 
millan, 1917 

Studies in Development and Learning; Archives of Psychol- 
ogy, II, 4-21, 54-57, 65-66, 68-70, 79-85, 88-101, March, 
1909 

The Individual in the Making; Houghton Mifflin, 1912 

The Use of Money; Bobbs Merrill, 1915 

Kirtley, J. S. — That Boy of Yours; Doran, 1912 

Kline, L. W. — Migratory Impulse versus Love of Home; 
American J ournal of Psychology, X, 1-81, 1898 
Truancy as Related to the Migrating Instinct; Pedagogical 
Seminary, V, 381-420, 1898 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 251 

Kline and France — Aspects of Child Life and Education 
(Hall and Smith): The Psychology of Ownership; Re- 
printed from Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 421-470, 1899 

Koch, Fritz — Paper Toys and How to Make Them; Koch 
Paper Toy Company, Philadelphia 

Krause, Carl A. — Why the Direct Method for a Modern 
Language? Educational Review, LI, 254-267, 1916 

Ladd, George T. — The Child and Religion; Putnam 

Langerfeld, A. — The /Esthetic Attitude; Harcourt Brace, 
1920 

La Page, C. Paget — Feeblemindedness in Children of School 
Age; Longmans Green, 1911 

Latham, H. L. — A Study of Falsehood; Pedagogical Semi- 
nary, XXI, 504-522, 1914 

Latimer, Caroline W. — Girl and Woman; Appleton, 1909 

Laurie, Simon S. — Lectures on Language and Linguistic 
Method in the School; Simpkins Marshall, 1893 

Lay, Wilfrid — The Child's Unconscious Mind; Dodd 
Mead, 1919 

Lee, Joseph — Play in Education; Macmillan, 1918 

Leonard, Eugenie A. — A Parent's Study of Children's Lies; 
Pedagogical Seminary, XXVII, 105-136, June, 1920 

Leuba, James — A Psychological Study of Religion; Mac- 
millan, 1912 

Long, Constance — Psychology of Phantasy; Balliere Tin- 
dall and Cox, 1920 

Lord, Herbert Gardiner — Psychology of Courage; Luce, 
1918 

Lowe, Orton — Literature for Children; Macmillan, 1914 

Lyman, Edna — Story Telling: What to Tell and How to 
Tell It; McClurg, 1915 



252 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

MacKenzie, R. T. — Exercise in Education and Medicine; 
Saunders, 1917 

McConatjghy, James L. — The Home and the School; Jour- 
nal of Education, March, 1919 

McDonald, R. A.F. — Adjustment of School Organization to 
Various Population Groups; Teachers College Contri- 
butions to Education, 1915 

McDougall, William — An Introduction to Social Psychol- 
ogy; Luce, 1921 

Mackay, Constance D. — Costume and Scenery for Ama- 
teurs; Holt, 1915 

Macy, John — A Guide to Reading; Doubleday Page, 1913 

Marot, Helen — The Creative Impulse in Industry: A 
Proposition for Educators; Dutton, 1918 

Mason, D. G. — A Child's Guide to Music; Baker, 1910 

Mendel, Lafayette B. — Nutrition and Growth; Harvey 
Lectures, X, 101-131, 1915 

Mill, John Stuart — Autobiography; Holt 

Miller, Charles M. — Kitecraft; Manual Arts Press 

Miller, H. Crichton — The New Psychology and the 
Teacher; Jarrolds, 1921 

Miner, J. B. — Deficiency and Delinquency; Warwick and 
York, 1918 

Moll, Albert — The Sexual Life of the Child; Macmillan, 
1921 

Monroe, Paul — Encyclopedia of Education; Macmillan, 
1911 
Principles of Secondary Education; Macmillan, 1914 

Monroe, William S. — The Money Sense of Children; 
Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 152-158, 1899 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 253 

Montessori, Maria — The Montessori Method; Stokes, 1912 

Moore, Annie Carroll — Roads to Childhood; Doran, 1920 

Moore, Harry H. — Our Complex Civilization and the Genius 
of Youth; School Review, XXIX, 617-627, October, 1921 
The Youth and the Nation; Macmillan, 1917 

Moore, Harris W. — Manual Training Toys for the Boy's 
Workshop; Manual Arts Press, 1912 

Morgan, T. — The Backward Child; Putnam, 1914 

Morgan, Thomas Hunt — The Physical Basis of Heredity; 
Lippincott, 1919 

Moses, Montrose J. — Children's Books and Reading; 
Mitchell Kennerley, 1907 

Mosso, Angelo — Fear; Longmans Green, 1896 

Murray and Smith — Child Under Eight; Arnold, 1919 

Needham, Mary M. — Folk Festivals: Their Growth and 
How to Give Them; Huebsch, 1912 

Nice, Margaret M. — A Child's Imagination; Pedagogical 
Seminary, XXVI, 173-201, June, 1919 

Norsworthy and Whitley — The Psychology of Childhood; 
Macmillan, 1918 

Olcott, Frances J. — The Children's Reading; Houghton 
Mifflin, 1912 

Oppenheim, N. — The Development of the Child; Macmillan, 
1898 

O'Shea, Michael Vincent — Everyday Problems in Child 
Training; Parents Library, Drake, 1920 
Social Development and Education; Houghton Mifflin, 1909 

Page, Kate Stearns — Robinhood; Boston Music Company 

Parker, Samuel Chester — Methods of Teaching in High 
Schools; Ginn, 1915 



254 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Patri, Angelo — The Child Who Fails; Red Cross Magazine, 
XV, February, 1920 

Patterson, Herbert P. — The Logical Problem of Co- 
education; Education, XXXVII, 112-115, 1916 

Peabody, Francis G. — The Religious Education of an 
American Citizen; Macmillan, 1918 

Peabody, James E. — Some Experiments in Sex Education 
in the Home and High School: American Social Hygiene 
Association, 1921 

Pfister, Oscar — The Psychoanalytic Method; Moffat Yard, 

1919 
Pintner and Paterson — A Scale of Performance Tests; 

Appleton, 1917 
Polkinhorne, Ruby K. and Mabel I. — Toy Making in 

School and Home; Hubbell Seavers, 1916 
Puffer, J. Adams — The Boy and His Gang; Houghton 

Mifflin, 1912 
Ramsey, W. R. — Care and Feeding of Infants and Children; 

Lippincott, 1916 

Rasmussen, Vilhelm — Child Psychology, I: Development 
in the First Four Years; Gyldendal, 1920 

Read, Mary L. — Mothercraft Manual; Little Brown, 1916 

Rice, Richard, Jr. — The Educational Value of Coeducation; 
Independent, LXXIII, 1304-1306, December 5, 1912 

Richards, Albertina A. — Motive in Education; Pedagog- 
ical Seminary, XXVIII, 60-72, 1921 

Richards, Esther L. — Some Adaptive Difficulties Found in 
School Children; Mental Hygiene, IV, 331-363, April, 
1920 
The Role of the Situation in Psychopathological Conditions; 
Mental Hygiene, V, 449-467, July, 1921 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 255 

Richmond, Ennis — The Mind of a Child; Longmans Green, 

1902 
Rose, M. S. — Feeding the Family; Macmillan, 1917 
Rowe, S. H. — Fear in the Discipline of Children; Outlook, 

LX, September 24, 1898 
Sandiford, Peter — The Mental and Physical Life of School 

Children; Longmans Green, 1915 
Sarg, Tony — The Marionette Book; Huebsch, 1921 
Schneider, Herman — Readings in Vocational Guidance 

(Meyer Bloomfield) : Selecting Young Men for Particular 

Jobs; Ginn, 1915 
Scott, Colin A. — Social Education; Ginn, 1908 
Sears, C. H. — Home and School Punishments; Pedagogical 

Seminary, VI, 159-187, 1899 
Seashore, Carl E. — (Editor) Mentality Tests, A Symposium; 

Journal of Educational Psychology, VII, 163-166, 229-240, 

278-286, 348-360 
(Author) Psychology of Musical Talent; Silver Burdett, 1919 
Seton, Ernest Thompson — Woodcraft Manual for Boys; 

Doubleday Page, 1918 
Woodcraft Manual for Girls; Doubleday Page, 1918 

Seymour, Harriet A. — What Music Can Do for You: A 

Guide for the Uninitiated; Harper, 1920 
Sharp, Cecil J. — An Introduction to the English Country 

Dance; Novello 
Folk Songs, Chanteys and Singing Games; Novello 

Sharp, Dallas L. — Education for Individuality; Atlantic 
Monthly, June, 1920 
Patrons of Democracy; Atlantic Monthly, November, 1919 

Sheldon, H. D. — The Institutional Activities of American 
Children; American Journal of Psychology, IX, 425-448, 
July, 1898 



256 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Sidis, Boris — Fear, Anxiety, and Psychopathic Maladies; 
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, VI, 107, 1911-1912 

Sies, Alice Corbin — Spontaneous and Supervised Play in 
Childhood; Macmillan, 1922 

Sisson, E. O. — Essentials of Character; Macmillan, 1910 

Slaughter, J. W. — The Adolescent; Macmillan, 1917 

Sloane, Thomas O. — Electric Toy Making for Amateurs; 
Henley 

Slosson, E. E. — Coeducation from Another Standpoint; In- 
dependent, LV, 366-370, February 12, 1903 

Smith, Hannah — Music and How It Came to Be What It Is; 
Scribner, 1898 

Smith, Nora A. — Training the Imagination; Outlook, LXIV, 
February 24, 1900 

Smith, Theodate L. — Obstinacy and Obedience; Pedagogical 
Seminary, XII, 27-54, 1905 

Sneath and Hodges — Moral Training in School and Home; 
Macmillan, 1913 

Spencer, Herbert — Education; Appleton 

Starch, Daniel — Educational Measurements; Macmillan, 

1916 
Educational Psychology; Macmillan, 1911 
Some Experimental Data on the Value of Studying Modern 

Languages; School Review, XXIII, 697-703, 1915 

Starr, Louis — The Adolescent Period; Blakiston, 1915 

Stedman, Henry R. — Mental Pitfalls of Adolescence; Bos- 
ton Medical and Surgical Journal, CLXXII, 695-713, 
November, 1916 

Stern, Adolph — Parent and Child; American Medicine 
(New Series), XIII, 145-151, March, 1918 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 257 

Stern, W. — The Supernormal Child: 

Journal of Educational Psychology, II, 143-148, 181- 
190, 1911 
Stout, John Elbert — High School: Its Function, Organi- 
zation, and Administration; Heath, 1914 

Stowell, William L. — Sex for Parents and Teachers; Mac- 
millan, 1921 

Strecker, Edward A. — Mai-Behavior Viewed as an Out- 
Patient Mental and Nervous Clinic Problem; Mental 
Hygiene, V, 225-238, April, 1921 

Sully, James — Studies of Childhood; Appleton, 1914 

Surette, T. W. — Music and Life: A Study of the Relations 

Between Ourselves and Music; Houghton Mifflin, 1917 
Swift, Edgar J. — Mind in the Making; Scribner, 1908 
Youth and the Race; Scribner, 1915 

Taft, Jessie — Some Problems in Delinquency; Papers and 
Proceedings American Sociological Society, XVI, 1922 

Taft, Linwood — The Technique of Pageantry; Barnes, 1921 

Tanner, A. E. — Adler's Theory of Minderwerligkeit; Peda- 
gogical Seminary, XXIII, 204-217, 1915 
The Child; Rand McNally, 1915 

Terman, L. M. — The Hygiene of the School Child; Houghton 
Mifflin, 1914 
The Intelligence of School Children; Houghton Mifflin, 1919 
The Measurement of Intelligence; Houghton Mifflin, 1916 

Terman, L. M. and Anonymous — An Experiment in 
Infant Education; Journal Applied Psychology, II, 219- 
228, 1918 

Thaler, William H. -— Modern Ideals of Child Behavior, and 
their Influence on American Life; Education, XLI, 141- 
151, November, 1920 

Thatcher, E. — Making Tin Can Toys; Lippincott, 1919 



258 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 

Thomson, Helen B. — The Menial Trails of Sex; University 
of Cambridge Press, 1903 

Thorndike, E. L. — Individuality; Houghton Mifflin, 1911 
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